INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

An Application Data Sheet is filed concurrently with this specification as part of the present application. Each application that the present application claims benefit of or priority to as identified in the concurrently filed Application Data Sheet is incorporated by reference herein in their entireties and for all purposes.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The instructions for making the cells in the human body are encoded in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA is a long, ladder-shaped molecule, in which each corresponding rung is made up of a pair of interlocking units, called bases, that are designated by the four letters in the DNA alphabet—A, T, G and C. ‘A’ always pairs with ‘T’, and ‘G’ always pairs with ‘C’. The sequence of these four letters that make up an individual's DNA is referred to as the individual's genome.

The long molecules of DNA in cells are organized into pieces called chromosomes. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. Other organisms have different numbers of pairs—for example, chimpanzees have 24 pairs. Chromosomes are further organized into short segments of DNA called genes. The different letters A, T, G, and C, which make up a gene, dictates how cells function and what traits to express by dictating what proteins the cells will make. Proteins do much of the work in the body's cells. Some proteins give cells their shape and structure. Others help cells carry out biological processes like digesting food or carrying oxygen in the blood. Using different combinations of the As, Cs, Ts and Gs, DNA creates the different proteins and regulates when and how they are turned on. Information about an individual's DNA sequence, including his or her genome or particular regions of the genome is referred to as genotypic information. Regions of a particular individual's genome can also be referred to as “DNA sequences.”

Each person has the same set of genes—about 20,000 in all. The differences between people come from slight variations in these genes. For example, it's not that a person with red hair has the “red hair gene” while a person with brown hair has the “brown hair gene.” Rather, all people have genes for hair color, and different versions of these genes, i.e. differences in the regions of the genome containing the gene, dictate whether someone will be a redhead or a brunette.

Variations in DNA sequence can generate biological variations between people by causing differences in the recipes for proteins that are written in genes. Those differences can in turn influence a variety of traits such as appearance, disease susceptibility or response to drugs. While some differences in the DNA sequences among individuals lead to differences in health or physical appearance, some variations in the DNA sequences among individuals seem to lead to no observable differences between people at all.

If one were to compare the DNA of any two people, more than 99% of it is expected to be the same across any appreciable stretch of sequence. However, the less than 1% of the DNA that differs between individuals can add up to many base pairs which contain useful information about the individuals. One can imagine a spectrum, where on one end we have two unrelated people from different ethnic groups. Their DNA will differ a great deal. On the other end of the spectrum we can imagine a pair of very close relatives like a parent and a child or two siblings. When DNA is passed from parent to child it is copied almost exactly. Consequently, virtually one half of the child's DNA will be identical to that of each parent. Similarly, for a pair of siblings, virtually 50% of their DNA should be identical.

Because of recombination of DNA sequences and the independent assortment of chromosomes, the DNA of two parents is shuffled at every generation. That, in addition to the small trickle of new mutations, means that only relatives will carry long genome regions where their DNA is completely or almost completely identical. In order to determine whether a region is identical, one could sequence assay every single base pair directly or assay a large number of markers that vary between individuals. Markers are points along the genome where individuals may differ. These markers could be, but are not limited to, SNPs (Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms), which are points along the genome with two or more common variations. A long stretch of sequence where every marker is the same between two chromosomes indicates that the rest of the sequence, which is not being assayed directly, is also identical. If two markers are same, they are called “Identical By State”. If, in addition to being the same, they lie within a region of identical sequence, which is shared because of recent common ancestry, they are “Identical By Descent” or IBD.

Every region of a person's autosomal (restricted to “non-sex” chromosomes) genome is represented by a pair of DNA sequences, one inherited from the mother and one from the father. Therefore, for every person, every marker along the genome (including SNPs) comprises two values where one value is the variant inherited from the mother and one value is the variant inherited from the father. A child inherits virtually 50% of his or her DNA from the father and virtually 50% from the mother. The DNA inherited from the mother can be either inherited from the maternal grandmother or the maternal grandfather. The DNA inherited from the father can be inherited from the paternal grandfather or the paternal grandmother. Because it is useful to know from which grandparent an individual inherited particular genes, it would be useful to have a method for comparing the genotypic information of an individual and his or her grandparents and displaying the comparison in a way that can be easy to understand.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The patent or application file contains at least one drawing executed in color. Copies of this patent or patent application publication with color drawing(s) will be provided by the Office upon request and payment of the necessary fee.

Various embodiments of the invention are disclosed in the following detailed description and the accompanying drawings.

FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating an embodiment of a system for displaying similarities in the genotypic data between two individuals.

FIG. 2a is a flow chart illustrating an embodiment of a method for displaying similarities in the genotypic data between a grandparent and a grandchild.

FIG. 2b is a flow chart illustrating an embodiment of a method for displaying similarities in the genotypic data between an additional grandparent and a grandchild.

FIG. 3 is a screen shot of an example of an interface displaying the relationships between an individual's grandparent and the individual's parents, and the relationship between the individual's parents and the individual.

FIG. 4 is a screen shot of an example of an interface allowing for receiving an indication that a first individual is a grandparent.

FIG. 5 is a screen shot of an example of an interface allowing for receiving an indication that a second individual is the grandchild of the first individual.

FIG. 6a is a screen shot of an example of an interface displaying a similarity score for a comparison when an indication is received that the comparison should be across all the genome data.

FIG. 6b is a screen shot of the display shown in FIG. 6a when a further indication has been received that a third individual is the other grandparent on the same side and that a fourth individual is the child of the indicated grandparents.

FIG. 6c is a screen shot of an example of an interface displaying an indication of the similarity score displayed in FIG. 6a and displaying an additional similarity score when an indication is received that a third individual is a grandparent on the other side of the first individual.

FIG. 6d is a screen shot of an example of an interface displaying a similarity score when an indication is received that the comparison should be for the genome data relating to a particular trait.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The invention can be implemented in numerous ways, including as a process; an apparatus; a system; a composition of matter; a computer program product embodied on a computer readable storage medium; and/or a processor, such as a processor configured to execute instructions stored on and/or provided by a memory coupled to the processor. In this specification, these implementations, or any other form that the invention may take, may be referred to as techniques. In general, the order of the steps of disclosed processes may be altered within the scope of the invention. Unless stated otherwise, a component such as a processor or a memory described as being configured to perform a task may be implemented as a general component that is temporarily configured to perform the task at a given time or a specific component that is manufactured to perform the task. As used herein, the term ‘processor’ refers to one or more devices, circuits, and/or processing cores configured to process data, such as computer program instructions.

A detailed description of one or more embodiments of the invention is provided below along with accompanying figures that illustrate the principles of the invention. The invention is described in connection with such embodiments, but the invention is not limited to any embodiment. The scope of the invention is limited only by the claims and the invention encompasses numerous alternatives, modifications and equivalents. Numerous specific details are set forth in the following description in order to provide a thorough understanding of the invention. These details are provided for the purpose of example and the invention may be practiced according to the claims without some or all of these specific details. For the purpose of clarity, technical material that is known in the technical fields related to the invention has not been described in detail so that the invention is not unnecessarily obscured.

FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating an embodiment of a system for displaying similarities in the genotypic data between two individuals.

In the example shown, system 100 receives an indication of at least two individuals, and then retrieves the genotype information for those individuals. The system 100 may receive an indication that a first individual is a grandparent and that a second individual is a grandchild of the first individual. The system 100 may retrieve the genotypic information for the individuals from a variety of sources. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, the system 100 may be connected, for example by a network 107, to a genome database 102, and retrieve the individual's genotypic information from the database 102, which includes the genotypic information for the first individual 104, the genotypic information for the second individual 106, and the genotypic information for the third individual 112. Alternatively, the genotypic information may be stored in the system 100 or may be received from another source.

The system 100 includes a comparison engine 108 that receives the genotypic information for the at least two individuals 104 and 106 and calculates a similarity score based on the genotypic information. The system may also receive an indication of whether the similarity score should be calculated to determine the similarity across all of the genome data of the individuals or the similarity between the at least two individuals' genome data with respect to a particular trait. The system 100 is connected, for example through a network 109 to a computer 111 which is connected to a display 110, for displaying a representation of the similarity score between or among the at least two individuals. The display 110 can include any device that will allow for displaying a representation of a similarity score, such as a monitor with a web browser.

FIG. 2a is a flow chart illustrating an embodiment of a method 200 for displaying similarities in the genotypic data between a grandparent and a grandchild. At 204, an indication that a first individual is a grandparent is received. FIG. 3 is a screen shot of an example of an interface displaying the relationships between an individual's grandparent and the individual's parents, and the relationship between the individual's parents and the individual. The example in FIG. 3 displays the relationship in a graphical tree structure, but other structures could be used. FIG. 4 is a screen shot of an example of an interface allowing for receiving an indication that a first individual is a grandparent. In the example shown in FIG. 4 at 402, “Ron Fisher” is indicated as the maternal grandparent. For example, a user may have selected “Ron Fisher” from a list of relatives and dragged and dropped “Ron Fisher” to the maternal grandfather position in the family tree.

At 206, an indication that a second individual is the grandchild of the first individual is received. FIG. 5 is a screen shot of an example of an interface allowing for receiving an indication that a second individual is the grandchild of the first individual. In the example shown in FIG. 5 at 502, “Erin Mendel” is indicated as the grandchild of “Ron Fisher.” For example, a user may have selected “Erin Mendel” from a list of relatives and dragged and dropped “Erin Mendel” to the grandchild position in the family tree.

At 207, an indication is received of the particular type of genome data for which the genotypic information should be compared. This indication may include a comparison across all of the genome data, or a comparison of the genome data regarding a particular trait. Examples of particular traits may include: bitter tasting, circadian rhythm, endurance, female fertility, immune system compatibility, non-bitter tasting, pigmentation, weight body mass index, or a set of genes indicated by the use. In the example shown in FIG. 4, the indication received is for a comparison across all of the genome data. As the example in FIG. 4 illustrates, a user interface may allow for receiving an indication of the type of genome data by a user clicking on a list on the screen. FIG. 4, however is only one example of allowing for receiving such an indication.

In some embodiments, a user then selects the “Recalculate” button below the family tree. In response, 208-212 are performed. In other embodiments, 208-212 are automatically performed.

At 208, the genotypic information for the first and second individual is retrieved. An example of retrieving the genotypic information is further illustrated in FIG. 1, in which the genotypic information for the first individual 104 and the second individual 106 is retrieved from a Genome Database coupled to the system 100. As discussed above, this is only an example of retrieving genotypic information for individuals. Genotypic information for an individual can be retrieved from other types of sources.

At 210, the genotypic information of the first individual 104 and second individual 106 is compared and a similarity score is calculated. In comparing genotypic information for two individuals, we expect more than 99% of the underlying DNA sequence to be the same. However, the less than 1% of the DNA that may differ represents a large number of base pairs. There may be many base pairs that differ in the DNA of two unrelated people from different ethnic groups. On the other hand, when DNA is passed from parent to child it is copied almost exactly. All locations on an individual's genome are represented by two DNA sequences one inherited from the father and one inherited from the mother. Two individuals are half-identical for a DNA region if one of their two sequences is the same at that region. Two individuals are identical for a DNA region if both of their two sequences are the same at that region. Because children inherit almost exactly 50% of their genomes from each parent, they are considered half-identical across the entire genome to each parent. Because a parent's chromosomes recombine before being passed on to children, a child receives a mixture of his or her grandparents' genomes. For example, because the DNA a mother passes to her daughter is a mixture of DNA from the maternal grandmother and the maternal grandfather, only patches of a grandchild's genome will be half-identical to each grandparent's genome.

In order to determine whether a region is identical, one could assay every single base pair directly or assay a large number of markers that vary between individuals. Markers are points along the genome where individuals may differ. These markers could be SNPs (Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms), which are points along the genome with two or more common variations. A long stretch of sequence where every marker is the same between two people indicates that the rest of the sequence, which is not being assayed directly, is also identical. If two markers are same, they are called “Identical By State”. If, in addition to being the same, they lie within a region of identical sequence, which is shared because of recent common ancestry, they are “Identical By Descent” or IBD.

Available genotypic information may come in “phased” or “unphased” forms. As explained above, humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. Every region of a person's autosomal (restricted to “non-sex” chromosomes) genome is represented by a pair of DNA sequences, one inherited from the mother and one from the father. If the genotypic data is “unphased” then it does not specify whether the marker values come from a particular one of the two pairs of DNA sequences for the chromosomes. With “phased” genotypic data, each of the markers values is specifically associated with one of the two pairs of DNA sequences for the chromosomes. The data can also come in a partially phased form where some of the markers have phased information while others do not. At 210 the comparison can be done using any combination of phased, partially-phased or unphased data.

An example of a way to find DNA regions that are IBD between two people using unphased SNP genotype data is to scan the genome in windows of 10 Centimorgans (“CM”). For every window the method can compare all the SNP values or genotypes between the two people. If every SNP has the same exact values, then the two people are completely identical along the 10 CM window. If they are not all the same, but every SNP has at least one value (allele) in common between two people, then the two people are half-identical along the window. The method can also allow for a small percentage of errors so that not every SNP has to have the same values or some values in common, to make the determination of identity or half-identity, respectively. Other embodiments can include other methods for determining IBD regions. As described above, DNA regions that a grandchild inherited from a grandparent should be IBD when comparing the grandchild's genome to that of the grandparent. Therefore, it can be estimated how much DNA a grandchild inherited from each grandparent, and also which genes come from whom.

Using the retrieved genotypic information for the individuals, a similarity score can be calculated by comparing the first individual's DNA to the second individual's DNA and determining the percentage of the DNA that is half-identical. If an indication is received at 207 that the comparison should be for all genotype data, the similarity score will be the percentage of all of the individual's genome for which data is available that is half-identical. If an indication is received at 207 that the comparison should be made for a particular trait, then only the DNA regions which are relevant to that particular trait are compared and the similarity score is only the percentage of those regions which are half-identical.

As explained above, each genomic region is represented by two DNA sequences, one inherited from the mother and one inherited from the father. Because a grandchild receives DNA sequence for each region from each parent, who received one sequence for each region from each of their parents, a grandchild is half-identical to either one grandparent on one side or the other grandparent on that side for every region along the genome. Thus, if the grandchild is not half-identical to a grandparent along certain regions, the grandchild will be half identical to the other grandparent along those regions. For example, if the maternal grandfather and the grandchild are compared for any regions that are not half-identical, the grandchild will be half-identical to the maternal grandmother along those regions. Thus, once a similarity score has been calculated estimating the inheritance for one grandparent on one side, the similarity score for the other grandparent can be calculated without any genetic comparisons. The similarity score estimating the inheritance for the other grandparent can be calculated by subtracting the first grandparent's similarity score, which is a percentage, from 100, or (100%−(similarity score)).

Once this similarity score has been calculated, at 212, an indication of the similarity score between the first individual and the second individual is displayed graphically using colors. FIG. 6a is a screen shot of an example of an interface displaying a similarity score for a comparison when an indication is received in FIG. 2 at 207 that the comparison should be across all the genome data. In the display example shown in FIG. 6a, an indication is received that “Ron Fisher” is the grandfather and that “Erin Mendel” is the grandchild. In the example shown, the color yellow is used to indicate the similarity score between the maternal grandfather and the grandchild. As shown in FIG. 6a, on the maternal side, there is a line drawn between the grandparents and the mother and then a line drawn between the mother and the grandchild. In the indication for each grandparent, there are boxes colored to indicate that person's genome. In the example shown, the boxes for the paternal grandfather 601 are green and the boxes for the paternal grandmother 602 are blue, the boxes for the maternal grandfather 603 are yellow and the boxes for the maternal grandmother 604 are red. To indicate the genetic connection between the grandparents and the parents, a colored line is shown from each grandparent to the parent that is his or her child. The lines 606, 607, 608 and 609 are the same color as the respective boxes 601, 602, 603 and 604 for each respect grandparent. In the example shown in FIG. 6a, 606 is green, 607 is blue, 608 is yellow, and 609 is red. The width of each of these lines indicates the percentage of the genome that is inherited by the parents from each of the respect grandparents. Because each parent inherits half of his or her genome from each of his or her parents, i.e., each parent is virtually half-identical to each grandparent, the lines 606 and 607 between each of the father's parents to the father are the same width. Also, the lines 608 and 609 between each of the mother's parents and the mother are the same width. In FIG. 6a, the boxes for the indication of the father's genome inherited from his parents 610 and 611 are the same color as the lines 606 and 607. Each box is the same size, because an equal amount of the genome was inherited from each parent. In FIG. 6a, the boxes for the indication of the mother's genome inherited from her parents 612 and 613 are the same color as the lines 608 and 609. In this embodiment, each box is the same size, because an equal amount of the genome was inherited from each parent. Because children are half-identical to their parents, no genetic comparisons were needed to display the similarities between the grandparents and the parents.

In the example in FIG. 6a, because an indication was received that “Ron Fisher” is the maternal grandfather of “Erin Mendel,” the calculated similarity score can be displayed using the colors for the maternal grandparents. As shown in FIG. 6a, a line 614 is displayed between the mother and the grandchild. The line 614 is a combination of the color for the boxes 603 and 604 for each maternal grandparent. Thus, line 614 is yellow and red. The width of each color in line 614 indicates the similarity score for each grandparent. For example, as shown in FIG. 6a, because the similarity score between the indicated maternal grandfather (“Ron Fisher” in this example) was calculated as 55%, 55% of the line between the mother and the grandchild (“Erin Mendel” in this example) is yellow. Because the resulting similarity score between the maternal grandmother is (100%-55%) or 45% as explained above, 45% of the line is red. Box 616, which further indicates this similarity score, is 55% yellow and 45% red. Because no paternal grandparents were indicated, no similarity score could be calculated, and therefore, no line between the father and the child is displayed and the box 615 for indicating the similarity score for the paternal grandparents is not colored.

FIG. 6b is a screen shot of the display shown in FIG. 6a when a further indication has been received that a third individual is the other grandparent on the same side and that a fourth individual is the child of the indicated grandparents. In FIG. 6b, an indication that the maternal grandmother is “Margo Fisher” and that the mother is “Lilly Mendel” is received. As explained above, once a similarity score has been computed for one grandparent on one side, the similarity score for the other grandparent on that side can be computed as (100%−(similarity score)). Thus, as shown in the example in FIG. 6b, receiving an indication that a third individual is the grandparent on the same side would not necessarily change the display of the similarity score. In some embodiments, the estimates can be improved when considering this additional indication or other indications. When two colors are used to display the similarity score of one grandparent by illustrating the similarity score in comparison to the similarity score of the other grandparent on that side, receiving a further indication that an individual is a grandparent on the same side as the indicated grandparent does not necessarily change the display in this embodiment. As shown in FIG. 6b, the width of all the colors of the boxes and lines are the same as in FIG. 6a. Because it is known that individuals are half-identical to their parents, receiving an indication of the parent who is the child of a grandparent also does not necessarily change the display when colors are used to display the similarity score.

In some embodiments the estimates of which DNA regions are IBD with different grandparents can be improved by receiving indications of additional relationships. For example, when comparing a grandchild to the maternal grandfather at a particular SNP using unphased data, we might have a value of GG for both the grandchild and the grandfather. That information by itself is not enough to make a determination of whether that SNP is located in a region which is IBD between the grandfather and the grandchild. However, if we also have genotypic data for the maternal grandmother at that SNP and the value for that SNP is AA, then we know that the DNA region around the SNP was not inherited from the grandmother and must have been inherited from the grandfather. This would imply that the region is IBD between the grandchild and the grandfather. Another example where an additional indication could be used to improve IBD estimates is when parental genotypic data is available. As above, we could have the case where for a particular SNP we have a value of GG for both a grandchild and the maternal grandfather. As above, based on that information alone, it is impossible to determine whether the SNP is within a region of IBD between the grandchild and the grandfather. However, if the mother's genotypic data is also available and it indicates a value of AG at that SNP, we can infer that the region surrounding the SNP is IBD between the grandchild and the grandfather. This is so because the mother had to have gotten the G allele from the grandfather which would mean that the A allele must have come from the grandmother. Of the mother's two alleles only one could have been passed to the grandchild, and it must have been the G allele because the child is GG. Thus the grandchild inherited one of their G alleles from the maternal grandfather, implying that the surrounding region is IBD between the grandfather and the grandchild. Another example where additional information can be used to improve IBD estimates is when genotypic data is available from the opposite side of the family tree. For example, when comparing a grandchild to the maternal grandfather at a particular SNP using unphased data, we might have a value of AG for the grandchild and GG for the grandfather. That information by itself is not enough to make a determination of whether that SNP is located in a region which is IBD between the grandfather and the grandchild. However, if the father's genotypic data is also available and it indicates a value of GG at that SNP, we can infer that the region surrounding the SNP is not IBD between the grandchild and the maternal grandfather. This is so because the father must have passed on the G allele to the grandchild, which would mean that the grandchild received the A allele from the maternal side. Because the maternal grandfather has only G alleles for that SNP, he could not have passed on the A allele and thus cannot be IBD with the grandchild. Other examples of making use of additional indications of relationships are possible and not limited to the examples given here.

FIG. 2b is a flow chart illustrating an embodiment of a method 214 for displaying similarities in the genotypic data between an additional grandparent and a grandchild. In some embodiments, the steps in method 214 can occur together with the steps in method 200 illustrated in FIG. 2a. At 216, an indication that a third individual is a grandparent on the other side of the second individual than the first individual is received. At 218, an indication is received of the particular type of genome data for which the genotypic information should be compared. When the method 214 occurs with the steps of the method 200, this step may be omitted. At step 220, the genotypic information for the third individual 112 is retrieved. This step may be performed in the same manner as step 208 described above. At step 222, the genotypic information for the second individual 106 and the third individual 112 is compared and a similarity score is calculated. This step may be performed in the same manner as step 210 described above. In step 224 the similarity score between the second individual and the third individual is displayed using colors.

FIG. 6c is a screen shot of an example of an interface displaying an indication of the similarity score displayed in FIG. 6a and displaying an additional similarity score when an indication is received at 216 that a third individual is a grandparent on the other side of the first individual. In the example shown in FIG. 6c, an indication was received that the comparison should be across all genome data. In the example shown in FIG. 6c, an indication is received that “Ron Fisher” is a maternal grandparent, and an indication is received that “Fred Mendel” is a paternal grandparent. Because the inheritance between the paternal grandparents and the father were known prior to receiving an indication of one of the paternal grandparents, FIG. 6c does not necessarily change from FIG. 6a other than the addition of the line 617 and the coloring of box 615, the box and line displaying an indication of the similarity score between the paternal grandparent, “Fred Mendel”, and the grandchild “Erin Mendel.” In the display shown in FIG. 6c, green is used to indicate the similarity score between “Fred Mendel” and “Erin Mendel” for a comparison across all genome data. Blue is used to indicate the similarity score between the paternal grandmother and “Erin Mendel” across all genome data. As with line 614 described with respect to FIG. 6a, the percentage of the width of each color in line 617 corresponds to the similarity score for the paternal grandparent associated with that color in this embodiment. Because the grandchild shown in FIG. 6c inherited 50% of all of her genome data from her paternal grandfather and 50% from her paternal grandmother, line 617 is 50% blue and 50% green. The width of each color in box 615 also corresponds to the similarity score for the paternal grandparent associated with that color. In the example in 6c, 50% of box 615 is colored blue and 50% of box 615 is colored green.

FIG. 6d is a screen shot of an example of an interface displaying a similarity score when an indication is received in FIG. 2 at 207 that the comparison should be for the genome data relating to a particular trait. In the example shown in FIG. 6d at 620, one way for an indication to be received that the similarity score should be calculated based on a particular trait is by the user clicking on or otherwise selecting that trait in a list of traits, and then selecting the “Recalculate” button. In the example shown in FIG. 6d at 620, the particular trait is “bitter tasting.” For the reason explained above, the genome of each parent is half identical to their parents. Therefore, the aspects of the display showing the inheritance of genes from the grandparents to the parents, the boxes 601-604, 610-613, and the lines 606-608 are the same as the corresponding boxes and lines in FIG. 6a. However, because only the DNA relevant to the genes for the particular trait are compared, the similarity score between the indicated grandparent “Ron Fisher” and the indicated grandchild “Erin Mendel” is different from the similarity score in FIG. 6a, which was calculated across all of the genome data. Therefore, line 614d and box 616d indicating the similarity score for the genome data relating to this particular trait, are different from line 614 and box 616 in FIG. 6a. In the example shown in FIG. 6d, the indicated grandchild inherited 9 of the 10 genes relating to bitter tasting from the indicated grandfather “Ron Fisher” and 1 of the 10 genes from her maternal grandmother. Therefore, line 614d indicating the similarity score between the grandchild and her maternal grandfather (between “Ron Fisher” and “Erin Mendel”) is 90% yellow because yellow is used to indicate the similarity score between the maternal grandfather and grandchild for the indicated trait. Line 614d is 10% red because red is used to indicate the similarity score between the maternal grandmother and grandchild. For the same reason, the corresponding box 616d is 90% yellow and 10% red. Because no indication of paternal grandparents was received, there is no line between the father and the child and the box 615 is not colored.

In other embodiments, receiving an indication at 207 of a type of genome data for which the genotypic information should be compared comprises receiving an indication of a user-specified type of genotypic information. For example, the user might type in a particular trait or location on the genome.

It is to be understood that FIGS. 6a-d are only one example of displaying an indication of the similarity score using colors. Other methods of displaying an indication of the similarity score using colors could be used. For example, a display may only include colored lines and not colored boxes. Alternatively, a display may include only boxes and not include lines. Other methods of displaying an indication of the similarity score using colors could be used. In some embodiments, in place of colors, shading or other types of fill (e.g., hatching or cross-hatching) may be used. Additionally, other examples may include displaying an indication of the similarity score between a grandchild and grandparents from generations further back in the individual's ancestral line.

Although the foregoing embodiments have been described in some detail for purposes of clarity of understanding, the invention is not limited to the details provided. There are many alternative ways of implementing the invention. The disclosed embodiments are illustrative and not restrictive.