RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application is a continuation application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/856,524, filed Apr. 23, 2020, which application is a continuation application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/370,991, filed Mar. 30, 2019 and issued as U.S. Pat. No. 10,672,935, which application is a continuation application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/202,771, filed Nov. 28, 2018 and issued as U.S. Pat. No. 10,340,408, which application is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/177,351, filed Oct. 31, 2018 and issued as U.S. Pat. No. 10,424,683, which application is a continuation application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/051,462, filed Jul. 31, 2018 and issued as U.S. Pat. No. 10,158,038, which application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/673,065, filed on May 17, 2018, and to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/687,659, filed on Jun. 20, 2018. These applications are incorporated herein by reference in their respective entireties.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Detecting neural activity in the brain is useful for medical diagnostics, imaging, neuroengineering, brain-computer interfacing, and a variety of other diagnostic and consumer-related applications. For example, it may be desirable to detect neural activity in the brain of a patient to determine if a particular region of the brain has been impacted by reduced blood irrigation, a hemorrhage, or any other type of damage. As another example, it may be desirable to detect neural activity in the brain of a user and computationally decode the detected neural activity into commands that can be used to control various types of consumer electronics (e.g., by controlling a cursor on a computer screen, changing channels on a television, turning lights on, etc.).

A photodetector capable of detecting a single photon (i.e., a single particle of optical energy) is an example of a non-invasive detector that can be used to detect neural activity within the brain. For example, an array of these sensitive photodetectors can record photons that reflect off of tissue within the brain in response to application of one or more light pulses. Based on the time it takes for the photons to be detected by the photodetectors, neural activity and other attributes of the brain can be determined or inferred.

A photodetector that employs a semiconductor-based single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) is capable of capturing individual photons with very high time-of-arrival resolution (a few tens of picoseconds). When photons are absorbed by a SPAD, their energy frees bound charge carriers (electrons and holes) that then become free-carrier pairs. In the presence of an electric field created by a reverse bias voltage applied to the diode, these free-carriers are accelerated through a region of the SPAD referred to as the multiplication region. As the free carriers travel through the multiplication region, they collide with other carriers bound in the atomic lattice of the semiconductor, thereby generating more free carriers through a process called impact ionization. These new free-carriers also become accelerated by the applied electric field and generate yet more free-carriers. This avalanche event can be detected and used to determine an arrival time of the photon.

In order to enable detection of a single photon, a SPAD is biased with a reverse bias voltage having a magnitude greater than the magnitude of its breakdown voltage, which is the bias level above which free-carrier generation can become self-sustaining and result in a runaway avalanche. This biasing of the SPAD is referred to as arming the device. When the SPAD is armed, a single free carrier pair created by the absorption of a single photon can create a runaway avalanche resulting in an easily detectable macroscopic current.

Conventional SPAD architectures gate a SPAD (i.e., arm and disarm the SPAD) by selectively biasing the SPAD with a gating signal generated by an active voltage source. Use of an active voltage source to gate a SPAD may disadvantageously introduce noise into the photodetector output, consume a relatively high amount of power, introduce supply voltage ripple within neighboring SPAD architectures, and cause other undesirable effects.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The accompanying drawings illustrate various embodiments and are a part of the specification. The illustrated embodiments are merely examples and do not limit the scope of the disclosure. Throughout the drawings, identical or similar reference numbers designate identical or similar elements.

FIG. 1 shows a conventional SPAD architecture known in the art.

FIG. 2 illustrates various components included in an exemplary fast-gated photodetector according to principles described herein.

FIG. 3A illustrates an exemplary photodetector system according to principles described herein.

FIG. 3B shows an exemplary non-invasive wearable brain interface system that implements photodetector system according to principles described herein.

FIG. 4A shows an exemplary SPAD circuit that may be used in the photodetector architectures described herein.

FIG. 4B shows another exemplary SPAD circuit that may be used in the photodetector architectures described herein.

FIG. 5 is a flowchart that illustrates an exemplary mode of operation of the SPAD circuit of FIG. 4A according to principles described herein.

FIGS. 6-7 show exemplary switch states of the SPAD circuit of FIG. 4A.

FIG. 8 shows an exemplary timing diagram that illustrates a relationship between the occurrence of a light pulse and a programmable gate delay according to principles described herein.

FIGS. 9A-9F show various circuits that may implement any of the switches described herein.

FIG. 10A illustrates an exemplary implementation of an inverter according to principles described herein.

FIG. 10B illustrates an exemplary implementation of a comparator according to principles described herein.

FIG. 11A shows another exemplary SPAD circuit that may be used in the photodetector architectures described herein.

FIG. 11B shows another exemplary SPAD circuit that may be used in the photodetector architectures described herein.

FIG. 12 is a flowchart that illustrates an exemplary mode of operation of the SPAD circuit of FIG. 11A according to principles described herein.

FIGS. 13-14 show exemplary switch states of the SPAD circuit of FIG. 11A.

FIGS. 15-20 show alternative circuit topologies of the SPAD circuit of FIG. 11A.

FIG. 21 illustrates an exemplary method according to principles described herein.

FIG. 22 illustrates another exemplary method according to principles described herein.

FIGS. 23-29 illustrate exemplary non-invasive wearable brain interface systems according to principles described herein.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Non-invasive wearable brain interface systems are described herein. For example, an exemplary non-invasive wearable brain interface system includes a headgear configured to be worn on a head of the user and a plurality of self-contained photodetector units configured to removably attach to the headgear (e.g., by fitting within cutouts included in the headgear, attaching to protrusions or embedded housings of the headgear, or in any other suitable manner). The photodetector units each include a plurality of photodetectors configured to detect photons of light after the photons reflect from a target within a brain of the user. The brain interface system further includes a master control unit communicatively coupled to each of the photodetector units by way of a plurality of wires and configured to control the photodetector units, the master control unit comprising an input power port configured to connect to a power cable that provides power from a power source for the master control unit and the photodetector units.

Another exemplary non-invasive wearable brain interface system includes a headgear configured to be worn on a head of the user and a plurality of self-contained photodetector units configured to removably attach to the headgear. The photodetector units each include a plurality of photodetectors configured to detect photons of light after the photons reflect from a target within a brain of the user. A photodetector included in the plurality of photodetectors includes a SPAD and a capacitor. The capacitor is configured to be charged, while the SPAD is in a disarmed state, with a bias voltage by a voltage source. The capacitor is further configured to supply, when the SPAD is put in an armed state, the bias voltage to an output node of the SPAD such that a voltage across the SPAD is greater than a breakdown voltage of the SPAD.

Another exemplary non-invasive wearable brain interface system includes a headgear configured to be worn on a head of the user and a plurality of self-contained photodetector units configured to removably attach to the headgear and fit within cutouts included in the headgear. The photodetector units each include a light source configured to generate light and a plurality of photodetectors configured to detect photons of the light after the photons reflect from a target within a brain of the user. The brain interface system further includes a master control unit communicatively coupled to each of the photodetector units by way of a plurality of wires and configured to control the photodetector units. The brain interface system further includes a power source configured to be worn off the head of the user, be connected to the master control unit by way of a power cable, and provide power for the master control unit and the photodetector units.

The non-invasive wearable brain interface systems described herein provide various benefits and advantages over conventional brain interface systems. For example, the non-invasive wearable brain interface systems may be effective in detecting neural activity in the brain of a user while at the same time being convenient and relatively comfortable to wear by the user. For example, the user may wear the non-invasive wearable brain interface systems described herein while the user performs daily activities, such as walking, exercising, working, etc. The non-invasive wearable brain interface systems described herein may also provide various benefits described in connection with the fast-gated photodetector architectures described herein and provide “real time” neural measurements.

Fast-gated photodetector architectures are also described herein. The photodetector architectures described herein may be implemented by the non-invasive wearable brain interface systems described herein and can be used to fast gate a SPAD while minimizing dead time, afterpulsing, power consumption, and time jitter. The photodetector architectures described herein can therefore increase signal-to-noise ratio of photodetection, thereby improving spatial and temporal resolution compared to conventional photodetectors. These and other advantages of the photodetector architectures described herein will be described in more detail below.

FIG. 1 shows a conventional SPAD architecture known in the art that may be used in a conventional photodetector. In FIG. 1, a gating signal generated by a voltage source VGATE is applied to an output node of a SPAD. The gating signal switches between ground and an excess bias voltage. When the gating signal is equal to ground, the voltage across the SPAD is less than or equal to a breakdown voltage of the SPAD, which means that the SPAD is in a disarmed or “off” state in which the SPAD cannot avalanche. When the gating signal is equal to the excess bias voltage, the voltage across the SPAD is greater than the breakdown voltage of the SPAD, which means that the SPAD is in an armed or “on” state in which a photon can initiate a detectable avalanche within the SPAD.

While the SPAD is in the armed state, a photon incident upon the SPAD may initiate an avalanche within the SPAD. When the avalanche occurs, current starts flowing through capacitor CP and resistors RB and RT, which increases the voltage at the SPAD anode. This, in turn, reduces the voltage across the SPAD. When the voltage across the SPAD decreases below the breakdown voltage of the SPAD, the avalanche stops. This process is called passive quenching.

A number of disadvantages are associated with the conventional SPAD architecture shown in FIG. 1. For example, because the gating of the SPAD is performed directly by the voltage source VGATE, the time it takes to arm the SPAD is not instantaneous. Rather, the time it takes to arm the SPAD depends on the rise time of the gating signal supplied by the voltage source VGATE (i.e., the time it takes for the gating signal to go from ground to the excess bias voltage). If a photon hits the SPAD during the rise time phase of the gating signal, the SPAD may not yet be armed and therefore may not detect the photon. Hence, any data collected by the photodetector during the rise time of the gating signal is corrupted and must be discarded.

Moreover, the passive quenching performed by the conventional SPAD architecture shown in FIG. 1 is a relatively slow process. Because the output node of the SPAD remains connected to the voltage source VGATE while SPAD is being passively quenched, a relatively large amount of current (and hence, power) is consumed by the SPAD architecture before the avalanche is passively quenched. A relatively slow passive quenching process may also lead to a high number of traps in the SPAD and high afterpulsing.

Another disadvantage of the conventional SPAD architecture of FIG. 1 is unwanted supply voltage ripple across a photodetector array. For example, each photodetector in an array of photodetectors may include the conventional SPAD architecture of FIG. 1. In this configuration, when an avalanche happens within a particular SPAD, a large current flow from the SPAD's voltage source (e.g., VGATE) to the SPAD may cause voltage variations on the voltages seen by other SPADs in the photodetector array. These voltage variations are exasperated as the number of SPADs increase in a given photodetector array, and may cause variation in the SPAD parameters (e.g., probability of detecting a photon, dark current, timing, etc.).

In contrast, the SPADs in the photodetector architectures described herein are not gated directly by an active voltage source, such as voltage source VGATE. Rather, an exemplary SPAD as described herein is gated with a capacitor that is pre-charged with a bias voltage before a command is provided to arm the SPAD. Gating the SPAD with a capacitor instead of with an active voltage source has a number of advantages and benefits.

For example, a SPAD that is gated with a capacitor may be armed practically instantaneously compared to a SPAD that is gated with an active voltage source. This is because the capacitor is already charged with the bias voltage when a command is provided to arm the SPAD. The sharper (i.e., faster) rise time provided by the photodetector architectures described herein may allow for improved depth resolution (i.e., the SPAD may be armed with greater precision, which improves the ability to time the arming of the SPAD with the time it is expected for a photon to take to reflect off a target located at a desired depth within the brain) and decreased noise (i.e., bad data that has to be discarded because it is collected before the SPAD completely transitions to the armed state).

Furthermore, a SPAD architecture that includes a SPAD that is gated with a capacitor may consume less current (and therefore power) than a conventional SPAD architecture that includes a SPAD that is gated with an active voltage source and allowed to passively quench. This is because the maximum current that the SPAD may consume during an avalanche is limited by the charge stored in the capacitor. By minimizing the power consumption of the SPAD architecture, the SPAD architectures described herein may allow for smaller power supplies to be used to power the SPAD architectures (which is particular advantageous in wearable devices). Moreover, by minimizing power consumption of a SPAD architecture, less stress is placed on the SPAD architecture over time, which may lead to increased longevity components within the SPAD architecture.

A SPAD that is gated with a capacitor also obviates the problem of supply voltage ripple that is associated with SPADs that are gated with active voltage sources. This is because the SPADs in the SPAD architectures described herein are decoupled from all active voltage sources. Hence, the SPAD architectures described herein are isolated from and do not affect performance of other SPAD architectures that are included in the same photodetector array. This isolation may result in reduced count variation and improved detection efficiency and sensitivity. These and other benefits and/or advantages that may be provided by the photodetector architectures described herein will be made apparent by the following detailed description.

FIG. 2 illustrates various components included in an exemplary fast-gated photodetector 202. As shown, photodetector 202 includes a SPAD circuit 204, a control circuit 206, a time-to-digital converter (TDC) 208, and a signal processing circuit 210.

SPAD circuit 204 may include a SPAD and various other electrical components configured to operate together to detect a photon incident upon the SPAD. As will be described below, SPAD circuit 204 may generate an output pulse when SPAD circuit 204 detects a photon. Various implementations of SPAD circuit 204 will be described in detail below.

Control circuit 206 may be implemented by an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC) or any other suitable circuit configured to control an operation of various components within SPAD circuit 204. For example, as will be described in more detail below, control circuit 206 may output control logic that controls an operation of one or more switches within SPAD circuit 204 to selectively charge a capacitor within SPAD circuit 204 and put the SPAD included in the SPAD circuit 204 in either an armed or a disarmed state. In some examples, control circuit 206 may control a gate delay, which specifies a predetermined amount of time control circuit 206 is to wait after an occurrence of a light pulse (e.g., a laser pulse) to put the SPAD in the armed state. To this end, control circuit 206 may receive light pulse timing information, which indicates a time at which a light pulse occurs (e.g., a time at which the light pulse is applied to tissue within the brain). Control circuit 206 may also control a programmable gate width, which specifies how long the SPAD is kept in the armed state before being disarmed.

Control circuit 206 is further configured to control signal processing circuit 210. For example, control circuit 206 may provide histogram parameters to signal processing circuit 210. Signal processing circuit 210 may generate histogram data in accordance with the histogram parameters.

TDC 208 is configured to measure a time difference between an occurrence of an output pulse generated by SPAD circuit 204 and an occurrence of a light pulse. To this end, TDC 208 may also receive the same light pulse timing information that control circuit 206 receives. TDC 208 may be implemented by any suitable circuitry as may serve a particular implementation.

Signal processing circuit 210 is configured to perform one or more signal processing operations on data output by TDC 208. For example, signal processing circuit 210 may generate histogram data based on the data output by TDC 208 and in accordance with histogram parameters provided by control circuit 206. To illustrate, signal processing circuit 210 may generate, store, transmit, compress, analyze, decode, and/or otherwise process histograms based on the data output by TDC 208. In some examples, signal processing circuit 210 may provide processed data to control circuit 206, which may use the processed data in any suitable manner.

FIG. 3A illustrates an exemplary photodetector system 300. As shown, photodetector system 300 includes a light source 302 and a plurality of SPAD circuits 304 (i.e., SPAD circuits 304-1 through 304-16) disposed on a printed circuit board (PCB) 306. Alternatively, SPAD circuits 304 (and the other components of photodetector system 300) may be disposed on an ASIC. Photodetector system 300 further includes a control circuit 308 common to SPADs 304, a signal processing circuit 310 common to SPADs 304, and a TDC array 312 that includes a plurality of TDCs each corresponding to one of the SPAD circuits 304. Control circuit 308, signal processing circuit 310, and TDC array 312 may each be disposed on PCB 306, as shown in FIG. 3A, or located elsewhere within photodetector system 300. Each SPAD circuit 304 in combination with a TDC included in TDC array 312, control circuit 308, and signal processing circuit 310 may implement a particular photodetector. Hence, photodetector system 300 may be said to include an array of photodetectors.

Light source 302 may be configured to generate one or more light pulses at one or more wavelengths that may be applied to a desired target (e.g., a target within the brain). Light source 302 may be implemented by any suitable combination of components. For example, light source 302 may be implemented by a laser source that generates laser pulses.

SPAD circuits 304 are each similar in operation to SPAD circuit 204 and may be configured to detect photons of a light pulse generated by light source 302 after the photons reflect from a target (e.g., a target internal to a user, such as brain tissue). SPAD circuits 304 may also be used to detect photons reflected from any object due to ambient light for imaging applications. In this case, light source 302 is not needed since the photons are generated by either ambient light or another light source.

As shown, SPAD circuits 304 are arranged in a four-by-four array on PCB 306. The positioning of each SPAD circuit 304 may correspond, for example, to a pixel within a pixel array. SPAD circuits 304 may alternatively be arranged in any suitable manner. While sixteen SPAD circuits 304 are shown in FIG. 3A, it will be recognized that any number of SPAD circuits 304 may be included in photodetector system 300.

Control circuit 308 may be similar in function to control circuit 206, and may be configured to control each of SPAD circuits 308. Signal processing circuit 310 may be similar in function to signal processing circuit 210, and may be configured to process signals output by each of SPAD circuits 304. TDC array 312 may include a plurality of TDCs each similar to TDC 208 and configured to measure a time difference between the occurrence of a light pulse and output pulses generated by each of SPAD circuits 304.

Photodetector system 300 may be implemented by or included in any suitable device. For example, photodetector system 300 may be included in a non-invasive wearable device that a user may wear to perform one or more diagnostic, imaging, and/or consumer-related operations.

To illustrate, FIG. 3B shows an exemplary non-invasive wearable brain interface system 320 (“brain interface system 320”) that implements a photodetector system, which may be similar to photodetector system 300. As shown, brain interface system 320 includes a head-mountable component 322 configured to be attached to a patient's head. Head-mountable component 322 includes a plurality of photodetectors 324 and a plurality of light sources 326 configured to generate light pulses. It will be recognized that in some alternative embodiments, head-mountable component 322 may include a single photodetector 324 and/or a single light source 326. For example, brain interface system 320 may be used for controlling an optical path and for transforming photodetector pixel measurements into an intensity value that represents an optical property of a deep brain tissue region. Brain interface system 320 allows optical detection of deep anatomical location through skin and bone by extracting data from photons originating from the deep target location, in contrast to traditional imaging systems and methods (e.g., optical coherence tomography (OCT)), which only image superficial tissue structures or through optically transparent structures.

Brain interface system 320 may further include a processor 328 configured to communicate with (e.g., control and/or receive signals from) photodetectors 324 and light sources 326 by way of a communication link 330. Communication link 330 may include any suitable wired and/or wireless communication link. Processor 328 may include any suitable housing and may be located on the patient's scalp, neck, shoulders, chest, or arm, as may be desirable. In some variations, processor 328 may be integrated in the same assembly housing as photodetectors 324 and light sources 326.

As shown, brain interface system 320 may optionally include a remote processor 332 in communication with processor 328. For example, remote processor 332 may store measured data from photodetectors 324 and/or processor 328 from previous detection sessions. Power for photodetectors 324, light sources 326, and/or processor 238 may be provided via a wearable battery (not shown). In some examples, processor 328 and the battery may be enclosed in a single housing, and wires carrying power signals from processor 328 and the battery may extend to photodetectors 324 and light sources 326. Alternatively, power may be provided wirelessly (e.g., by induction).

Additional or alternative brain interface systems that may implement the photodetectors systems described herein are described in more detail below.

Photodetector system 300 may alternatively be included in a non-wearable device (e.g., a medical device and/or consumer device that is placed near the head or other body part of a user to perform one or more diagnostic, imaging, and/or consumer-related operations). Photodetector system 300 may alternatively be included in a sub-assembly enclosure of a wearable invasive device (e.g., an implantable medical device for brain recording and imaging).

Various SPAD circuits that may be used in the photodetector architectures described herein will now be described. Each of the SPAD circuits described herein are gated with a capacitor (or, in some cases, with a parasitic capacitance of the SPAD itself) that is pre-charged with a bias voltage before a command is provided to arm the SPAD.

FIG. 4A shows an exemplary SPAD circuit 400 that may be used in the photodetector architectures described herein. As shown, SPAD circuit 400 includes a SPAD 402, voltage sources 404-1 and 404-2, a capacitor 406, a plurality of switches 408 (i.e., switches 408-1, 408-2, and 408-3), a resistor 410, and an inverter 412.

As shown, voltage source 404-1 is connected to an input node 414 (also referred to as an anode) of SPAD 402. Voltage source 404-1 may include any suitable active voltage source configured to supply a reverse bias voltage at input node 414. The reverse bias voltage has a magnitude that is equal to or less than a breakdown voltage of SPAD 402. In some examples, the reverse bias voltage supplied by voltage source 404-1 has a magnitude that is less than the breakdown voltage of SPAD 402 by a predetermined amount. For example, the reverse bias voltage supplied by voltage source 404-1 may be within 1-2 volts of the breakdown voltage of SPAD 402. An exemplary breakdown voltage of SPAD 402 is 20 volts. Hence, an exemplary, but not exclusive, magnitude of the reverse bias voltage supplied by voltage source 404-1 is 18-19 volts.

Voltage source 404-2 may include any suitable active voltage source and is configured to be selectively connected to capacitor 406 by way of switch 408-3. For example, voltage source 404-2 is connected to capacitor 406 when switch 408-3 is closed and disconnected from capacitor 406 when switch 408-3 is open. When voltage source 404-2 is connected to capacitor 406, voltage source 404-2 charges capacitor 406 with an excess bias voltage. In some examples, the excess bias voltage has a magnitude that is less than or equal to the breakdown voltage of SPAD 402 (e.g., less than the magnitude of the reverse bias voltage supplied by voltage source 404-1). For example, the excess bias voltage may be 2-5 volts. However, the excess bias voltage may have any other suitable value as may serve a particular implementation.

In some examples, the excess bias voltage may be set to a value that compensates for the parasitic capacitance of SPAD 402. It will be recognized that when capacitor 406 is connected to SPAD 402, some of the charge on capacitor 406 will be transferred to the parasitic capacitance of SPAD 402. Hence, the excess bias voltage may be set to ensure that the total voltage across SPAD 402 exceeds the breakdown voltage of SPAD 402 even after the parasitic capacitance of SPAD 402 is charged.

Switches 408 (also referred to herein as a “switch configuration”) are configured to selectively arm and disarm SPAD 402. For example, as will be illustrated below, switches 408-1 and 408-2 may put SPAD 402 into an armed state by connecting capacitor 406 to an output node 416 (also referred to as a cathode) of SPAD 402 while capacitor 406 is charged with the excess bias voltage and while capacitor 406 is disconnected from voltage source 404-2. As shown, capacitor 406 may be connected to output node 416 by way of resistor 410. In some alternative embodiments, resistor 410 is connected between SPAD 402 and voltage source 404-1. In yet other alternative embodiments, resistor 410 is not included in SPAD circuit 400, and capacitor 406 may be connected directly to output node 416.

When capacitor 406 is connected to output node 416, capacitor 406 supplies the excess bias voltage to output node 416. This causes the voltage across SPAD 402 to be greater than the breakdown voltage of SPAD 402, thereby putting SPAD 402 in the armed state. For example, if the breakdown voltage of SPAD 402 is 20 volts, the reverse bias voltage as supplied by voltage source 404-1 at input node 414 is −18 volts, and the excess bias voltage supplied by capacitor 406 at output node 416 is 3 volts when capacitor 406 is fully charged, the voltage across SPAD 402 is 21 volts when capacitor 406, which is greater than the breakdown voltage of SPAD 402.

Capacitor 406 may be of any suitable size (i.e., capacity). In some examples, the size of capacitor 406 may be relatively small in order to reduce the current flow through SPAD 402 during an avalanche. This minimizes power consumption, quench time, afterpulsing, and time jitter.

Switches 408-1 and 408-2 may put SPAD 402 into a disarmed state by disconnecting capacitor 406 from output node 416 of SPAD 402 and connecting the output node of SPAD 402 to ground 418. In this configuration, the voltage across SPAD 402 is substantially equal to the magnitude of the reverse bias voltage, which is less than the breakdown voltage of SPAD 402.

Inverter 412 is configured to generate an output pulse when a photon hits SPAD 402 while SPAD 402 is in the armed state. When a photon initiates an avalanche within SPAD 402, SPAD 402 draws current from capacitor 406, which discharges capacitor 406 to zero. As capacitor 406 is discharged, the voltage at output node 416 decreases. When the voltage at output node 416 drops below a certain value, inverter 412 generates an output pulse. In some examples, a power supply to inverter 412 is adjustable to account for different thresholds.

FIG. 4B shows an alterative implementation of SPAD circuit 400 in which a comparator 420 is included in SPAD circuit 400 in place of inverter 412. Comparator 420 is configured to generate an output pulse when a photon hits SPAD 402 while SPAD 402 is in the armed state. To this end, comparator 420 has a negative terminal and a positive terminal. A threshold voltage (V_threshold) is on the negative terminal. This threshold voltage is less than voltage across SPAD 402 while SPAD 402 is in the armed state and capacitor 406 is fully charged with the excess bias voltage. The positive terminal of comparator 420 is connected to output node 416 (e.g., by way of resistor 410). When a photon initiates an avalanche within SPAD 402, SPAD 402 draws current from capacitor 406, which discharges capacitor 406 to zero. As capacitor 406 is discharged, the voltage at output node 416 decreases. When the voltage at output node 416 drops below the threshold voltage on the negative terminal of comparator 420, comparator 420 generates an output pulse.

FIG. 5 is a flowchart 500 that illustrates an exemplary mode of operation of SPAD circuit 400. For purposes of this example, control circuit 206 is configured to control SPAD circuit 400 by controlling switches 408, TDC 208 is connected to the output of inverter 412, and signal processing circuit 210 is connected to the output of TDC 208. One or more of the operations shown in flowchart 500 may be performed by control circuit 206.

In operation 502, capacitor 406 is charged with the excess bias voltage while SPAD 402 is in a disarmed state. Control circuit 206 may cause capacitor 406 to be charged with the excess bias voltage while SPAD 402 is in the disarmed state by providing control logic that opens switch 408-1 to disconnect output node 416 of SPAD 402 from capacitor 406, closes switch 408-2 to connect output node 416 of SPAD 402 to ground 418, and closes switch 408-3 to connect voltage source 404-2 to capacitor 406. This switch state is shown in FIG. 4A.

While in the switch state shown in FIG. 4A, voltage source 404-2 charges capacitor 406 with the excess bias voltage. When control circuit 206 detects that capacitor 406 is fully charged with the excess bias voltage (Yes; decision block 504), control circuit 206 disconnects voltage source 404-2 from capacitor 406 (operation 506). This is performed by control circuit 206 providing control logic that opens switch 408-3 while switch 408-1 is still open and switch 408-2 is still closed. This switch state is shown in FIG. 6.

In operation 508, control circuit 206 puts SPAD 402 in an armed state once capacitor 406 is charged with the excess bias voltage. To this end, control circuit 206 provides control logic that closes switch 408-1 to connect output node 416 of SPAD 402 to capacitor 406, opens switch 408-2 to disconnect output node 416 of SPAD 402 from ground 418, and keeps switch 408-3 open to keep the voltage source 404-2 disconnected from capacitor 406. This switch state is shown in FIG. 7. While in the switch state shown in FIG. 7, SPAD 402 is armed because the voltage across SPAD 402 is higher than the breakdown voltage of SPAD 402.

In some examples, control circuit 206 waits to put SPAD 402 in the armed state until a predetermined amount of time elapses after an occurrence of a light pulse (e.g., a light pulse generated by light source 302). In this manner, SPAD circuit 400 may be configured to detect a photon arriving from a particular depth within a user (e.g., a particular depth within the brain of the user).

For example, control circuit 206 may maintain data representative of a programmable gate delay. The programmable gate delay specifies a predetermined amount of time that control circuit 206 is to wait after an occurrence of a light pulse to put SPAD 402 in the armed state. The programmable gate delay may be programmed by a user (e.g., via a software and/or hardware interface with control circuit 206) to specify any suitable amount of time. Additionally or alternatively, the programmable gate delay may be determined by signal processing circuit 210.

Control circuit 206 may use the programmable gate delay by detecting an occurrence of a light pulse (e.g., by receiving light pulse timing information that specifies a time that the light pulse is generated) while SPAD 402 is in the disarmed state and putting SPAD 402 in the armed state a predetermined amount of time, as specified by the programmable gate delay, after the occurrence of the light pulse. Control circuit 206 may alternatively set SPAD 402 to always be armed by closing switches 408-1 and 408-3 while keeping switch 408-2 open.

FIG. 8 shows an exemplary timing diagram 800 that illustrates a relationship between the occurrence of a light pulse and the programmable gate delay used by control circuit 206. As shown, a sequence of light pulses 802 (e.g., light pulses 802-1 and 802-2) may be applied to a target (e.g., tissue within the brain of a user). An exemplary frequency at which light pulses 802 are applied is 40-100 megahertz.

During the application of the sequence of light pulses 802, SPAD 402 is armed and disarmed in accordance with one or more timing parameters (e.g., a programmable gate delay, a programmable gate width, etc.) maintained by control circuit 406. This arming and disarming is represented by pulse wave 804. As shown, when pulse wave 804 is high, SPAD 402 is in the armed state. When pulse wave 804 is low, SPAD 402 is in the disarmed state.

As shown, each light pulse 802 occurs (i.e., is applied) while SPAD 402 is in the disarmed state. Each light pulse 802 occurs at a particular time. For example, light pulse 802-1 occurs at time t₀. The programmable gate delay maintained by control circuit 206 specifies how long control circuit 206 waits until outputting control data that puts SPAD 402 in the armed state. In the example of FIG. 8, SPAD 402 is put into the armed state at time t₁. Hence, the programmable gate delay is equal to t₁−t₀. An exemplary programmable gate delay is between zero picoseconds and 4 nanoseconds. As mentioned above, the rise time associated with SPAD 402 going from the disarmed state to the armed state is relatively fast (e.g., almost instantaneous) because SPAD 402 is being gated by capacitor 406 instead of by an active voltage source.

In some examples, control circuit 206 also maintains data representative of a programmable gate width, which specifies how long SPAD 402 is kept in the armed state before being disarmed. The programmable gate width may be programmed by a user (e.g., via a software and/or hardware interface with control circuit 206) to specify any suitable amount of time. Additionally or alternatively, the programmable gate width may be derived in signal processing circuit 210.

In the timing diagram of FIG. 8, SPAD 402 is disarmed at time t₂. Hence, the programmable gate width in this example is equal to t₂−t₁. By controlling the gate width, control circuit 206 may ensure that SPAD 402 is disarmed for a relatively long time before the occurrence of a subsequent light pulse. This may advantageously avoid afterpulsing, which may distort data acquired by the photodetector by triggering an output pulse by inverter 412 that is not indicative of an arrival of an actual photon.

Accordingly, if control circuit 206 detects that the programmable gate width is met (i.e., that the predetermined time specified by the programmable gate width has expired) (Yes; decision block 510), control circuit 206 puts SPAD 402 back in the disarmed state (operation 512) by opening switch 408-1 to disconnect output node 416 of SPAD 402 from capacitor 406 and closing switch 408-2 to connect output node 416 of SPAD 402 to ground 418. The process shown in FIG. 5 may be repeated for subsequent light pulses. For example, while SPAD 402 is in the disarmed state, capacitor 406 may again be charged so that SPAD 402 may again be armed and detect a photon from light pulse 802-2.

Once SPAD 402 has been put in the armed state, a photon from the light pulse may initiate an avalanche within SPAD 402. As described above, SPAD 402 draws current from capacitor 406 while the avalanche is occurring, which decreases the voltage at output node 416. When the voltage at output node 416 drops below a certain value, inverter 412 generates an output pulse.

TDC 208 may measure a time difference between an occurrence of the output pulse generated by inverter 412 and an occurrence of light pulse 802-1 in any suitable manner. For example, referring to FIG. 8, inverter 412 may generate an output pulse at time t₃. TDC 208 may measure a time difference between the occurrence of the output pulse and the occurrence of light pulse 802-1 by computing a difference between t₃and t₀. Alternatively, TDC 208 may compute a difference between t₃and an occurrence of a subsequent light pulse (i.e., light pulse 802-2) and thereby determine the time difference between the occurrence of the output pulse and the occurrence of light pulse 802-1.

TDC 208 may output data representative of the time difference between the occurrence of the output pulse and the occurrence of light pulse 802-1 to signal processing circuit 210. Signal processing circuit 210 may perform one or more of the signal processing operations described herein on the data.

The various components included in SPAD circuit 400 may be implemented in any suitable manner. For example, switches 408 may each be implemented by any suitable switch circuitry. To illustrate, FIGS. 9A-9F show various circuits that may implement any of switches 408. In particular, FIG. 9A shows an NPN bipolar junction transistor that may implement one or more of switches 408, FIG. 9B shows PNP bipolar junction transistor that may implement one or more of switches 408, FIG. 9C shows an NMOS MOSFET that may implement one or more of switches 408, FIG. 9D shows a PMOS MOSFET that may implement one or more of switches 408, FIG. 9E shows a transmission gate that may implement one or more of switches 408, and FIG. 9F shows a square wave generator and a capacitor that may implement one or more of switches 408.

FIG. 10A illustrates an exemplary implementation of inverter 412. In this implementation, when an avalanche happens, the voltage on output node 416 of SPAD 402 drops close to zero, causing the output pulse generated by inverter 412 to go high. Various other circuit topologies may implement inverter 412 as may serve a particular implementation.

FIG. 10B illustrates an exemplary implementation of comparator 420. In this implementation, when an avalanche happens, the voltage on output node 416 of SPAD 402 drops close to zero, causing the output pulse generated by comparator 420 to go high. Various other circuit topologies may implement comparator 420 as may serve a particular implementation.

In some examples, inverter 412 and comparator 420 may be omitted from SPAD circuit 400. In these examples, the output from SPAD 402 is provided as the input to TDC 208.

FIG. 11A shows another exemplary SPAD circuit 1100 that may be used in the photodetector architectures described herein. As shown, SPAD circuit 1100 includes a SPAD 1102, voltage sources 1104-1 and 1104-2, capacitors 1106-1 and 1106-2, a plurality of switches 1108 (i.e., switches 1108-1 and 1108-2), a resistor 1110, and an inverter 1112.

As shown, capacitor 1106-1 is connected to an output node 1114 of SPAD 1102. Capacitor 1106-1 may have any suitable size as may serve a particular implementation. Capacitor 1106-1 is shown to be connected to output node 1114 by way of resistor 1110. In some examples, resistor 1110 is not actually a physical resistor, but represents the internal resistance of SPAD 1102.

Voltage source 1104-1 may include any suitable active voltage source and is configured to be selectively connected to capacitor 1106-1 by way of switch 1108-2. For example, voltage source 1104-1 is connected to capacitor 1106-1 when switch 1108-1 is in a first position and disconnected from capacitor 1106-1 when switch 1108-1 is in a second position. In the examples provided herein, switch 1108-1 is closed while in the first position and open while in the second position. It will be recognized that in alternative configurations, voltage source 1104-1 may be connected to capacitor 1106-1 when switch 1108-1 is open and disconnected from capacitor 1106-1 when switch 1108-1 is closed.

When voltage source 1104-1 is connected to capacitor 1106-1, voltage source 1104-1 charges capacitor 1106-1 with a bias voltage. The bias voltage has a magnitude that equal to or less than a breakdown voltage of SPAD 1102. In some examples, the bias voltage supplied by voltage source 1104-1 has a magnitude that is less than the breakdown voltage of SPAD 1102 by a predetermined amount. For example, the bias voltage supplied by voltage source 1104-1 may be within 1-2 volts of the breakdown voltage of SPAD 1102. An exemplary breakdown voltage of SPAD 1102 is 20 volts. Hence, an exemplary, but not exclusive, magnitude of the bias voltage supplied by voltage source 1104-1 is 18-19 volts.

As shown, voltage source 1104-2 is connected to an input node 1116 of SPAD 1102. Voltage source 1104-2 may include any suitable active voltage source configured to supply a reverse excess bias voltage at input node 1116. In some examples, the reverse excess bias voltage has a magnitude that is less than or equal to the breakdown voltage of SPAD 1102 (e.g., less than or equal to the magnitude of the bias voltage supplied by voltage source 1104-1). For example, the reverse excess bias voltage may be negative 2-5 volts. However, the reverse excess bias voltage may have any other suitable value as may serve a particular implementation. As described above, the reverse excess bias voltage may be set to a value that compensates for the parasitic capacitance of SPAD 1102.

Switches 1108 are configured to selectively arm and disarm SPAD 1102. For example, as will be illustrated below, switch 1108-1 may put SPAD 1102 into an armed state by connecting voltage source 1104-2 to input node 1116 of SPAD 1102 while capacitor 1106-1 is both charged with the bias voltage and disconnected from voltage source 1104-1.

When voltage source 1104-2 is connected to input node 1116, voltage source 1104-2 supplies the reverse excess bias voltage to input node 1116. This causes the voltage across SPAD 1102 to be greater than the breakdown voltage of SPAD 1102, thereby putting SPAD 1102 in the armed state. For example, if the breakdown voltage of SPAD 1102 is 20 volts, the bias voltage as supplied by capacitor 1106-1 at output node 1114 is 18 volts when capacitor 1106-1 is fully charged, and the reverse excess bias voltage supplied by voltage source 1104-2 at input node 1116 is −3 volts, the voltage across SPAD 1102 is 21 volts, which is greater than the breakdown voltage of SPAD 1102.

Switch 1108-1 may put SPAD 1102 into a disarmed state by disconnecting voltage source 1104-2 from input node 1116 of SPAD 1102 and connecting input node 116 of SPAD 1102 to ground 1118. In this configuration, the voltage across SPAD 1102 is substantially equal to the magnitude of the bias voltage, which is less than the breakdown voltage of SPAD 1102.

Inverter 1112 is similar to inverter 412 and is configured to generate an output pulse when a photon hits SPAD 1102 while SPAD 1102 is in the armed state. When a photon initiates an avalanche within SPAD 1102, SPAD 1102 draws current from capacitor 1106-1, which discharges capacitor 1106-1 to zero. As capacitor 1106-1 is discharged, the voltage at output node 1114 decreases. When the voltage at output node 1114 drops below a certain value, inverter 1112 generates an output pulse.

FIG. 11B shows an alterative implementation of SPAD circuit 1100 in which a comparator 1120 is included in SPAD circuit 400 in place of inverter 1112. Comparator 1120 is similar to comparator 420 and is configured to generate an output pulse when a photon hits SPAD 1102 while SPAD 1102 is in the armed state. As shown, a positive terminal of comparator 1120 is connected to output node 1114 of SPAD 1102 by way of capacitor 1106-2. In some examples, capacitor 1106-2 is omitted from SPAD circuit 1100.

When a photon initiates an avalanche within SPAD 1102, SPAD 1102 draws current from capacitor 1106-1, which discharges capacitor 1106-1 to zero. As capacitor 1106-1 is discharged, the voltage at output node 1114 decreases. When the voltage at output node 1114 drops below the threshold voltage on the negative terminal of comparator 1120, comparator 1120 generates an output pulse.

FIG. 12 is a flowchart 1200 that illustrates an exemplary mode of operation of SPAD circuit 1100. For purposes of this example, control circuit 206 is configured to control SPAD circuit 1100 by controlling switches 1108, TDC 208 is connected to the output of inverter 1112, and signal processing circuit 210 is connected to the output of TDC 208. One or more of the operations shown in flowchart 1200 may be performed by control circuit 206.

In operation 1202, capacitor 1106-1 is charged with the bias voltage while SPAD 1102 is in a disarmed state. Control circuit 206 may cause capacitor 1106-1 to be charged with the bias voltage while SPAD 1102 is in the disarmed state by providing control logic that causes switch 1108-1 to be in a first position (i.e., closed) to connect input node 1116 of SPAD 1102 to ground 1118 and switch 1108-2 to be in the first position to connect voltage source 1104-1 to capacitor 1106-1. This switch state is shown in FIG. 11A.

While in the switch state shown in FIG. 11A, voltage source 1104-1 charges capacitor 1106-1 with the bias voltage. When control circuit 206 detects that capacitor 1106-1 is fully charged with the bias voltage (Yes; decision block 1204), control circuit 206 disconnects voltage source 1104-1 from capacitor 1106-1 (operation 1206). This is performed by control circuit 206 providing control logic that causes switch 1108-2 to be in the second position (i.e., open) while switch 1108-1 is still in the first position. This switch state is shown in FIG. 13.

In operation 1208, control circuit 206 puts SPAD 1102 in an armed state while capacitor 1106-1 is charged with the bias voltage. To this end, control circuit 206 provides control logic that causes switch 1108-1 to be in the second position (i.e., open) to connect input node 1116 of SPAD 1102 to voltage source 1104-2. The control logic also keeps switch 1108-2 in the second position to keep voltage source 1104-1 disconnected from capacitor 1106-1. This switch state is shown in FIG. 14. While in the switch state shown in FIG. 14, SPAD 1102 is armed because the voltage across SPAD 1102 is higher than the breakdown voltage of SPAD 1102.

As described above, control circuit 206 may arm and disarm SPAD 1102 in accordance with a programmable gate delay and a programmable gate width. Accordingly, if control circuit 206 detects that the programmable gate width is met (i.e., that the predetermined time specified by the programmable gate width has expired) (Yes; decision block 1210), control circuit 206 puts SPAD 402 back in the disarmed state (operation 1212) by causing switch 1208-1 to be in the first position to connect input node 1116 of SPAD 1102 to ground 1118. The process shown in FIG. 12 may be repeated for subsequent light pulses.

Once SPAD 1102 has been put in the armed state, a photon from the light pulse may initiate an avalanche within SPAD 1102. As described above, SPAD 1102 draws current from capacitor 1106-1 while the avalanche is occurring, which decreases the voltage at output node 1116. When the voltage at output node 1116 drops below a certain value, inverter 1112 generates an output pulse. TDC 208 may process the output pulse as described above.

The various components included in SPAD circuit 1100 may be implemented in any suitable manner. For example, switches 1108 may each be implemented by any suitable switch circuitry, such as the switch circuitry shown in FIGS. 9A-9F. Inverter 1112 may be implemented by the circuitry shown in FIG. 10A. Comparator 1120 may be implemented by the circuitry shown in FIG. 10B.

In some examples, inverter 1112 and comparator 1120 may be omitted from SPAD circuit 1100. In these examples, the output from SPAD 1102 is provided as the input to TDC 208.

SPAD circuit 1100 may be implemented by any of a number of alternative circuit topologies. For example, FIGS. 15-20 show alternative circuit topologies of SPAD circuit 1100. In particular, the circuit topology of FIG. 17 does not include a capacitor that gates the SPAD. Rather, the parasitic capacitance of the SPAD is charged with an excess bias voltage and used to gate the SPAD. This may advantageous in configurations where space limitations limit the number of components that can be included in SPAD circuit 1100.

FIG. 21 illustrates an exemplary method 2100. While FIG. 21 illustrates exemplary operations according to one embodiment, other embodiments may omit, add to, reorder, and/or modify any of the operations shown in FIG. 21. One or more of the operations shown in FIG. 21 may be performed by control circuit 206 in connection with SPAD circuit 400.

In operation 2102, control circuit 206 directs a first voltage source to supply a reverse bias voltage at an input node of a SPAD, the reverse bias voltage having a magnitude that is equal to or less than a breakdown voltage of the SPAD. Operation 2102 may be performed in any of the ways described herein.

In operation 2104, control circuit 206 directs a second voltage source configured to selectively connect to a capacitor to charge the capacitor with an excess bias voltage. Operation 2104 may be performed in any of the ways described herein.

In operation 2106, control circuit 206 disconnects, in response to the capacitor being charged with the excess bias voltage, the second voltage source from the capacitor. Operation 2106 may be performed in any of the ways described herein.

In operation 2108, control circuit 206 puts the SPAD into an armed state by connecting the capacitor to an output node of the SPAD while the capacitor is both charged with the excess bias voltage and disconnected from the second voltage source. Operation 2108 may be performed in any of the ways described herein.

FIG. 22 illustrates another exemplary method 2200. While FIG. 22 illustrates exemplary operations according to one embodiment, other embodiments may omit, add to, reorder, and/or modify any of the operations shown in FIG. 22. One or more of the operations shown in FIG. 22 may be performed by control circuit 206 in connection with SPAD circuit 1100.

In operation 2202, control circuit 206 directs a first voltage source to charge a capacitor connected to an output node of a single photon avalanche diode with a bias voltage having a magnitude that is equal to or less than a breakdown voltage of the SPAD. Operation 2202 may be performed in any of the ways described herein.

In operation 2204, control circuit 206 directs a second voltage source to supply a reverse excess bias voltage. Operation 2204 may be performed in any of the ways described herein.

In operation 2206, control circuit 206 puts the SPAD into an armed state by connecting the second voltage source to an input node of the SPAD while the capacitor is both charged with the bias voltage and disconnected from the first voltage source. Operation 2206 may be performed in any of the ways described herein.

Various non-invasive wearable brain interface systems that may implement the photodetector architectures described herein will now be described in connection with FIGS. 23-29. Each of the non-invasive wearable brain interface systems described in connection with FIGS. 23-29 will be referred to as “brain interface systems”. The brain interface systems described herein are merely exemplary of the many different types of brain interface systems that may implement the photodetector architectures described herein.

FIG. 23 shows an exemplary brain interface system 2300. Brain interface system 2300 includes headgear 2302, a plurality of photodetector units 2304 (e.g., photodetector units 2304-1 through 2304-12), a master control unit 2306, and a power source 2308.

In the example of FIG. 23, headgear 2302 is implemented by a cap that is worn on a head of a user 2310. Alternative implementations of headgear 2302 include helmets, beanies, headbands, other hat shapes, etc. and will be described herein. Headgear 2302 may be made out of any suitable cloth, soft polymer, plastic, hard shell, and/or any other suitable material as may serve a particular implementation.

Photodetector units 2304 may be attached to headgear 2302 in any suitable manner. For example, headgear 2302 may include a plurality of cutouts within which photodetector units 2304 are configured to fit, a plurality of protrusions on an inner surface of headgear 2302 to which photodetector units 2304 are configured to attached, a plurality of embedded housings configured to enclose individual photodetector units 2304, and/or any other suitable attachment mechanism or element.

To illustrate, FIG. 24A shows an exemplary portion of headgear 2302 that includes a plurality of cutouts 2402 (e.g., cutout 2402-1 through cutout 2402-9). In FIG. 24A, photodetector units 2304 have not yet been inserted within cutouts 2402. As shown, each cutout 2402 may be surrounded by a rigid ring 2404 embedded within headgear 2302. For example, cutout 2402 is surrounded by rigid ring 2404. Rigid rings 2404 may be made out of any suitable material (e.g., plastic, metal, etc.). Rigid rings 2404 may include one or more grooves or other features configured to facilitate removable attachment of photodetector units 2304 to headgear 2302. While cutouts 2402 and rigid rings 2404 are shown in FIG. 24A to be rectangular, cutouts 2402 and rigid rings 2404 may alternatively be any other shape and/or size.

FIG. 24B shows a cross sectional side view of headgear 2302 and illustrates an alternative configuration in which headgear 2302 includes a plurality of protrusions 2406 (e.g., protrusions 2406-1 through 2406-5). Protrusions 2406 may be made out of the same or a different material as headgear 2302 and may be located on an inner surface of headgear 2302. While shown in FIG. 24B to be separate elements that are coupled to headgear 2302, protrusions 2406 may alternatively be formed as part of headgear 2302. Protrusions 2406 may have any suitable shape and/or size that allows photodetector units 2304 to attach thereto. In some examples, protrusions 2406 each include a rigid ring similar to rigid rings 2404 to which photodetector units 2304 may attach.

In some alternative examples, photodetector units 2304 are not attached to headgear 2302 in discrete locations. For example, headgear 2302 may include a rail-like guide inside headgear 2302 that allows a user to position photodetector units 2304 anywhere along a continuous path instead of in discrete cutout or protrusion locations. As another example, headgear 2302 may be made out of a magnetic material to which photodetector units may magnetically couple at any desirable location.

The above-described manners in which photodetector units 2304 may attach to headgear 2302 may similarly apply to any of the other brain interface systems described herein.

Returning to FIG. 23, each photodetector unit 2304 may be self-contained. In other words, each photodetector unit may be housed within its own casing. Each photodetector unit 2304 may be similar to photodetector system 300. For example, each photodetector unit 2304 may include an individual light source configured to generate light and a plurality of photodetectors configured to detect photons of the light after the photons reflect from a target within a brain of user 2310. In some examples, each photodetector unit 2304 may include a printed circuit board on which the light source and the photodetectors are disposed.

In some alternative embodiments, photodetector units 2304 do not include individual light sources. Instead, a light source configured to generate the light that is detected by photodetector units 2304 may be included elsewhere in brain interface system 2300. For example, a light source may be included in master control unit 2306 and coupled to photodetector units 2304 through electrical connections.

Each of the light sources described herein may be implemented by any suitable device. For example, a light source as used herein may be, for example, a distributed feedback (DFB) laser, a super luminescent diode (SLD), a light emitting diode (LED), a diode-pumped solid-state (DPSS) laser, a laser diode (LD), a super luminescent light emitting diode (sLED), a vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL), a titanium sapphire laser, a micro light emitting diode (mLED), and/or any other suitable laser or light source.

Each photodetector included in the plurality of photodetectors may be implemented by any of the photodetectors described herein. For example, a particular photodetector included in the plurality of photodetectors may include a SPAD and a capacitor. The capacitor is configured to be charged, while the SPAD is in a disarmed state, with a bias voltage by a voltage source. The capacitor is configured to supply, when the SPAD is put in an armed state, the bias voltage to an output node of the SPAD such that a voltage across the SPAD is greater than a breakdown voltage of the SPAD.

Master control unit 2306 is communicatively coupled to each of photodetector units 2304 by way of a plurality of wires 2312. In some examples, wires 2312 are at least partially tunneled from photodetector units 2304 to master control unit 2306 within a material of headgear 2302. In some examples, each photodetector unit 2304 includes a plug interface configured to connect to one or more of wires 2312.

Master control unit 2306 may be configured to control photodetector units 2304. For example, master control unit 2306 may direct the light source of each photodetector unit 2304 to generate the light in the photodetectors of each photodetector unit 2304 to detect the photons of the light. This may be performed in any of the ways described herein.

As shown, master control unit 2306 is located within headgear 2302. In alternative embodiments, as will be described below, master control unit 2306 may be configured to be worn off the head of user 2310. In some examples, master control unit 2306 may be selectively removed from headgear 2302.

Power source 2308 may be implemented by a battery and/or any other type of power source configured to provide operating power to master control unit 2306, photodetector units 2304, and/or any other electronic component included within brain interface system 2300. As shown, power source 2308 may be connected to a power cable 2314 that is configured to plug into a corresponding input power port 2316 of master control unit 2306. In the example of FIG. 23, input power port 2316 is connected to master control unit 2306 by way of a wire (not shown). In alternative examples, input power port 2316 may be integrated directly into master control unit 2306. In the example of FIG. 23, power source 2308 is configured to be worn off the head of user 2310. Alternatively, power source 2308 may be integrated into headpiece 2302. For example, power source 2308 may be configured to be worn on the shoulders and/or waist of user 2310, clip onto a belt worn by user 2310, and/or otherwise be carried by user 2310.

FIG. 25 shows another exemplary brain interface system 2500. Like brain interface system 2300, brain interface system 2500 includes headgear 2502 and a plurality of photodetector units 2504 (e.g., photodetector units 2504-1 through 2504-4) selectively attached to headgear 2502. However, in brain interface system 2500, the master control unit and power source are both included in a self-contained unit 2506 configured to be worn on the shoulders of a user 2508. The master control unit and power source included in unit 2506 are configured to perform the same functions as described in connection with FIG. 23. However, because the master control unit and power source are included in unit 2506, they are not explicitly illustrated in FIG. 25.

FIG. 26 shows another exemplary brain interface system 2600. Brain interface system 2600 is similar to brain interface system 2300 in that brain interface system 2600 includes headgear 2602, plurality of photodetector units (e.g., photodetector unit 2604) selectively attached to headgear 2602, and a master control unit 2606 included in headgear 2602. However, in FIG. 26, headgear 2602 is implemented by a beanie configured to be worn by a user 2608.

FIG. 27 shows another exemplary brain interface system 2700. In brain interface system 2700, headgear 2702 is implemented by a headband configured to be worn by a user 2704. Like brain interface system 2300, brain interface system 2700 includes headgear 2702 and a plurality of photodetector units 2706 selectively attached to headgear 2702. A plurality of photodetector units (e.g., photodetector unit 2706) are selectively attached to headgear 2702, as described above. In brain interface system 2700, the master control unit and power source are included in a self-contained unit 2708 configured to be worn on the shoulders of user 2704.

FIG. 28 shows an inner surface of headgear 2802 that may be included in any of the brain interface systems described herein. Headgear 2802 may be configured to hug (e.g., conform to) the head of a user. The inner surface is configured to face the head of a user while the user wears headgear 2802. As shown, a plurality of photodetector units (e.g., photodetector unit 2804) may be attached to headpiece 2802 (e.g., by fitting within a plurality of cutouts of headpiece 2802, attaching to a plurality of protrusions of headpiece 2802, being enclosed within a plurality of embedded housings of headpiece 2802, etc.). As described above, each photodetector unit includes a light source configured to direct light into the brain of the user. For example, photodetector unit 2804 includes light source 2806. Light source 2806 can be part of or included within the photodetector unit 2804, as shown, or alternatively light source 2806 may be remotely located and coupled to photodetector unit 2804 through electrical connections.

FIG. 29 shows another exemplary brain interface system 2900. Brain interface system 2900 includes headgear 2902 configured to be worn by a user 2904 and includes a master control unit 2906 and a plurality of photodetector units (not shown). Master control unit 2906 is connected to a power source 2908 by way of a power cable 2910. Headgear 2902 is similar to headgear 2802 in that headgear 2902 is configured to hug the head of user 2904.

As shown, power source 2908 may be attached to a belt 2912 that may be worn by user 2904. In this configuration, power source 2908 remain securely attached to user 2904 while the user 2904 runs or otherwise moves.

In the preceding description, various exemplary embodiments have been described with reference to the accompanying drawings. It will, however, be evident that various modifications and changes may be made thereto, and additional embodiments may be implemented, without departing from the scope of the invention as set forth in the claims that follow. For example, certain features of one embodiment described herein may be combined with or substituted for features of another embodiment described herein. The description and drawings are accordingly to be regarded in an illustrative rather than a restrictive sense.