Metal product precursors can be introduced as solids, fluids, gasses or powders. For example, iron oxide can be introduced in powdered form, such as shown in FIG. 2, or in the form of raw ore. Metal product precursors can be introduced by means of gravity, vacuum, pumps, or entrained in a flow of a carrier fluid. Carrier fluids can be liquids, gasses, or flowable powders. The carrier fluid can comprise nitrogen, argon, oxygen, water, compressed air, dry air, methane, ethane, propane, ammonia, carbon monoxide, and/or combinations thereof. These fluids may be used to control the concentration of metal precursors in the reaction chamber and/or to regulate the reaction kinetics and thermodynamics, in addition to being used as a carrier or purge fluid. In some embodiments, these fluids may be housed in an inert gas chamber for eventual mixing with the metal product precursors. In other embodiments, these fluids may be utilized to transfer materials between the one or more chambers of a photonic furnace.

An example of a suitable light source for use in a photonic furnace is depicted in FIG. 3. A primary array 301, can comprise a plurality of smaller secondary arrays 302. Each of the secondary arrays can comprise a plurality of individual light sources, for example a plurality of laser or light emitting diodes. For example, a blue 1 MW laser diode array can be used to focus power to a beam impact area where it causes heating of materials which absorb the light from the beam or a plurality of beams.

An example workflow for production of steel or iron from iron oxide using a continuous-flow photonic furnace employing an array-based light source such as the one detailed in FIG. 3 is depicted in FIG. 4. Iron oxide falls through the path of the light source, causing it to heat up as it falls. Hydrogen is provided as a reducing agent. Reaction of the heated iron oxide with the reducing agent produces metallic iron. In addition to reduced CO₂emissions, of the furnaces and methods used due to more efficient heating leading to reduced energy cost, an additional carbon savings is realized by using hydrogen since the byproduct of the reduction is H₂O rather than CO₂(which would be produced using a carbon-based reducing agent). Flux is added and impurities removed in the form of slag. Alloying elements can further be added to produce a desired steel alloy, which can either be utilized directly or processed further.

An example geometry for a photonic furnace comprising a plurality of light sources is depicted in FIG. 5. Photonic furnaces can comprise an optional preheating chamber 501, a reaction chamber 503, one or more light source 505, one or more beam impact area of the one or more light source 507, which may change based on the presence and location of a precursor material. Photonic furnaces can further comprise a precursor material inlet 509, an optional shutter, divider, or valve 511 for isolating the optional preheating chamber 501 from the reaction chamber 503. Photonic furnaces can further comprise a product outlet 513.

In some embodiments, photonic furnaces can comprise a plurality of additional inlets and/or outlets located to allow introduction of reducing agents or additional metal precursors such as flux or alloying agents and/or to allow removal of slag and other byproducts from the reactor at any stage desired.

The one or more light sources of a photonic furnace can be placed in a variety of layouts. A light source can be focused onto a point, defocused, or split into many beams using a system of optics comprising mirrors, lenses, and fibers. In some embodiments, there may be an array of light sources, arranged in a flat or curved panel.

A photonic furnace may comprise one or more light sources, with a wavelength tuned to be in the absorption band(s) of one or more metal precursor inputs. A photonic furnace may exist in a number of configurations. In some embodiments, the photonic furnace can comprise a single light source (e.g. a single collimated beam laser). In another embodiment, a photonic furnace can comprise a plurality of light sources (e.g. an array of collimated beam lasers or light emitting diodes). In another embodiment, the light source may comprise an array of laser diodes.

In some embodiments, a photonic furnace can be arranged such that falling particles of a metal precursor (e.g. a metal oxide) pass through the beam of at least one light source. The particles can absorb the energy of the beam, causing the particles to be heated to a target temperature as they fall. For example, metal oxide can fall through a drop tube and into beam path of one or more light source together with a reducing agent to form an intermediate metal product. The reducing agent can be pre-heated to a reaction temperature by the light source or another source of heat. The intermediate metal product will have a higher percentage of metal than the metal oxide, having between about 50 and about 99% metallization (i.e. being between about 50% and about 99% metal), with the balance comprising metal oxide and impurities native to the metal oxide.

In some embodiments a rotary kiln can periodically expose metal precursors (e.g. metal oxides) in bulk or particle form to the beam of at least one light source to reach a target temperature. In some embodiments, a stationary or moving bed of metal precursors can be exposed to the light beam to reach a target temperature.

The reducing agent and the metal oxide can be heated separately before combining to produce an intermediate metal product or can be heated simultaneously. In some embodiments, the reducing agent and the metal oxide are heated to the same temperature. In another embodiment, the reducing agent and the metal oxide are heated to different temperatures. In some embodiments, the reducing agent is heated to a target temperature before coming in contact with metal oxide in a photonic furnace. In some embodiments, the metal oxide is heated in the laser furnace to a target temperature and then is contacted with the reducing agent.

In some cases, photonic furnaces described herein can comprise one or more vacuum manifold, which can be fluidically or otherwise operably coupled to one or more vacuum pumps which operate to reduce a pressure within the photonic furnace, the reaction chamber, the preheating chamber and/or any combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the one or more vacuum pumps can comprise rotary-vane, turbine, syringe, liquid ring, scroll, diaphragm, claw, screw, roots, and/or turbomolecular vacuum pumps. The vacuum pumps can be configured to reduce the pressure within the photonic furnace, the reaction chamber, the preheating chamber and/or any combination thereof to a pressure of less than about 500 Torr, less than about 100 Torr, less than about 1 Torr, or less than about 1 mTorr.

Reduction of the pressure inside the photonic furnace, the reaction chamber, the preheating chamber can facilitate heating of the metal precursor by interaction with the beam of the one or more light sources. Reduction of the pressure within the photonic furnace, the reaction chamber, the preheating chamber can reduce or even eliminate the need for an external reducing agent for conversion of a metal precursor to a metal produce. For example, application of vacuum to the reaction chamber of a photonic furnace can help to remove O₂, and/or other molecular gasses from heated metal precursors (e.g. such as Iron oxides) into an exhaust coupled to the one or more vacuum manifolds, leaving a reduced metal product in the furnace.

Reduction of the pressure inside the photonic furnace, the reaction chamber, the preheating chamber can further reduce a total energy consumption of the furnace, reduce waste produced by the furnace, reduce the cost of operating the furnace, and/or reduce a complexity of operating the furnace to produce a metal product from a metal precursor (e.g. by eliminating the need for introduction or use of an external reducing agent).

In some embodiments, the reaction chamber and/or preheating chamber of a photonic furnace can have a rectangular, square, hexagonal, octagonal, triangular, or other polygonal cross-sectional shape. In some embodiments, the reaction chamber and/or preheating chambers of a photonic furnace can be an irregular shape adapted to the flow of input and output materials. In some embodiments, the body of either chamber can be made from steel or another suitable structural material lined with a refractory ceramic coating on its inner surface.

The refractory ceramic coating may be a number of materials. In some embodiments, the refractory ceramic coating may be aluminum oxide. In some embodiments, the refractory ceramic coating may be zirconium oxide. In some embodiments, the refractory ceramic coating may be silicon carbide. In some embodiments, the refractory ceramic coating may be graphite. In some embodiments, the refractory ceramic coating may be magnesium oxide. In some embodiments, the refractory ceramic coating may be silicon oxide. In some embodiments, the refractory ceramic coating may be combinations of aluminum oxide, zirconium oxide, silicon carbide, graphite, magnesium oxide, and silicon oxide. In some embodiments, the body of either chamber can be made entirely from the ceramic refractory material. In some embodiments, either chamber can have a non-polygonal cross-sectional shape (e.g. comprising curved surfaces, and the like) designed to facilitate focusing of the energy density of the light beams of the one or more light sources onto a beam impact area.

Impurities can be removed from the intermediate metal product, the metal, or the metal alloy at any step. Fluxes may be used to react with the impurities to remove them from the intermediate metal product, the metal, or the metal alloy and/or to facilitate their removal. In some embodiments, impurities are not removed from the intermediate metal product. In some embodiments, impurities are not removed from the metal. In an embodiment, impurities are not removed from the metal alloy.

Photonic furnaces can comprise a preheating system, which heats metal precursors prior to their entry into the reaction chamber. The preheating system can be before or within a preheating chamber of the photonic furnace. The preheating system may be comprised of a number of components, for example, induction heaters, resistive heaters, electron beams, electric arcs, microwaves, heat pumps, heat exchangers, plasma heaters, and/or combinations thereof.

A photonic furnace may be configurated as a falling particle design, shaft furnace, stationary kiln, rotary kiln, and/or a fluidized bed design. A photonic furnace can be configured to operate in a continuous, flow through manner or a batch manner.

In some embodiments, flux is added to molten metal or a molten metal precursor to facilitate removal of impurities.

In some embodiments, a series of optics may be used to focus the one or more light sources.

The absorption spectrum of a metal oxide can be used to determine an optimized light source wavelength to be used for heating. Light beams from more than one light source can be combined to provide high power densities and rapid, efficient heating of metal oxides. Metal oxides can be reduced by interacting a light source with the metal oxide to reach a reaction temperature and/or heating the reducing agent to a reaction temperature. The metal oxide and the reducing agent may be heated to the same or different reaction temperatures. A reducing agent can be combined with the metal oxide to produce an intermediate metal product from the reduction of the metal oxide. Impurities can be removed from the intermediate metal product and/or alloying elements can be added to create a metal product. Molten metal or alloy can be atomized to create metal powder, or can be cast, rolled, extruded, or otherwise formed into solid metal objects or construction materials.

In some embodiments, the metal oxide powder may have rounded or spherical shape. In some embodiments the metal oxide powder may have sizes ranging from 10 micrometers to 20 mm in diameter. In some embodiments, the metal powder may have sizes ranging from 10 to 6300 micrometers in diameter. In some embodiments, the metal powder may have sizes ranging from 20 to 75 micrometers in diameter. In some embodiments, the metal powder may have sizes ranging from 45 to 150 micrometers in diameter.

In some embodiments, the reaction temperature is reached in about 0.1 seconds to about 10 seconds. In some embodiments, the reaction temperature is reached in about 0.1 seconds to about 0.5 seconds, about 0.1 seconds to about 1 second, about 0.1 seconds to about 2 seconds, about 0.1 seconds to about 3 seconds, about 0.1 seconds to about 4 seconds, about 0.1 seconds to about 5 seconds, about 0.1 seconds to about 10 seconds, about 0.5 seconds to about 1 second, about 0.5 seconds to about 2 seconds, about 0.5 seconds to about 3 seconds, about 0.5 seconds to about 4 seconds, about 0.5 seconds to about 5 seconds, about 0.5 seconds to about 10 seconds, about 1 second to about 2 seconds, about 1 second to about 3 seconds, about 1 second to about 4 seconds, about 1 second to about 5 seconds, about 1 second to about 10 seconds, about 2 seconds to about 3 seconds, about 2 seconds to about 4 seconds, about 2 seconds to about 5 seconds, about 2 seconds to about 10 seconds, about 3 seconds to about 4 seconds, about 3 seconds to about 5 seconds, about 3 seconds to about 10 seconds, about 4 seconds to about 5 seconds, about 4 seconds to about 10 seconds, or about 5 seconds to about 10 seconds. In some embodiments, the reaction temperature is reached in about 0.1 seconds, about 0.5 seconds, about 1 second, about 2 seconds, about 3 seconds, about 4 seconds, about 5 seconds, or about 10 seconds. In some embodiments, the reaction temperature is reached in at least about 0.1 seconds, about 0.5 seconds, about 1 second, about 2 seconds, about 3 seconds, about 4 seconds, or about 5 seconds. In some embodiments, the reaction temperature is reached in at most about 0.5 seconds, about 1 second, about 2 seconds, about 3 seconds, about 4 seconds, about 5 seconds, or about 10 seconds.

In some embodiments, the reaction temperature is reached in about 10 seconds to about 1,000 seconds. In some embodiments, the reaction temperature is reached in about 10 seconds to about 20 seconds, about 10 seconds to about 50 seconds, about 10 seconds to about 100 seconds, about 10 seconds to about 200 seconds, about 10 seconds to about 500 seconds, about 10 seconds to about 1,000 seconds, about 20 seconds to about 50 seconds, about 20 seconds to about 100 seconds, about 20 seconds to about 200 seconds, about 20 seconds to about 500 seconds, about 20 seconds to about 1,000 seconds, about 50 seconds to about 100 seconds, about 50 seconds to about 200 seconds, about 50 seconds to about 500 seconds, about 50 seconds to about 1,000 seconds, about 100 seconds to about 200 seconds, about 100 seconds to about 500 seconds, about 100 seconds to about 1,000 seconds, about 200 seconds to about 500 seconds, about 200 seconds to about 1,000 seconds, or about 500 seconds to about 1,000 seconds. In some embodiments, the reaction temperature is reached in about 10 seconds, about 20 seconds, about 50 seconds, about 100 seconds, about 200 seconds, about 500 seconds, or about 1,000 seconds. In some embodiments, the reaction temperature is reached in at least about 10 seconds, about 20 seconds, about 50 seconds, about 100 seconds, about 200 seconds, or about 500 seconds. In some embodiments, the reaction temperature is reached in at most about 20 seconds, about 50 seconds, about 100 seconds, about 200 seconds, about 500 seconds, or about 1,000 seconds.

In some embodiments, the reaction temperature is about 500° C. to about 3,500° C. In some embodiments, the reaction temperature is about 500° C. to about 1,000° C., about 500° C. to about 1,500° C., about 500° C. to about 1,600° C., about 500° C. to about 1,700° C., about 500° C. to about 1,800° C., about 500° C. to about 2,000° C., about 500° C. to about 2,200° C., about 500° C. to about 2,500° C., about 500° C. to about 3,000° C., about 500° C. to about 3,500° C., about 1,000° C. to about 1,500° C., about 1,000° C. to about 1,600° C., about 1,000° C. to about 1,700° C., about 1,000° C. to about 1,800° C., about 1,000° C. to about 2,000° C., about 1,000° C. to about 2,200° C., about 1,000° C. to about 2,500° C., about 1,000° C. to about 3,000° C., about 1,000° C. to about 3,500° C., about 1,500° C. to about 1,600° C., about 1,500° C. to about 1,700° C., about 1,500° C. to about 1,800° C., about 1,500° C. to about 2,000° C., about 1,500° C. to about 2,200° C., about 1,500° C. to about 2,500° C., about 1,500° C. to about 3,000° C., about 1,500° C. to about 3,500° C., about 1,600° C. to about 1,700° C., about 1,600° C. to about 1,800° C., about 1,600° C. to about 2,000° C., about 1,600° C. to about 2,200° C., about 1,600° C. to about 2,500° C., about 1,600° C. to about 3,000° C., about 1,600° C. to about 3,500° C., about 1,700° C. to about 1,800° C., about 1,700° C. to about 2,000° C., about 1,700° C. to about 2,200° C., about 1,700° C. to about 2,500° C., about 1,700° C. to about 3,000° C., about 1,700° C. to about 3,500° C., about 1,800° C. to about 2,000° C., about 1,800° C. to about 2,200° C., about 1,800° C. to about 2,500° C., about 1,800° C. to about 3,000° C., about 1,800° C. to about 3,500° C., about 2,000° C. to about 2,200° C., about 2,000° C. to about 2,500° C., about 2,000° C. to about 3,000° C., about 2,000° C. to about 3,500° C., about 2,200° C. to about 2,500° C., about 2,200° C. to about 3,000° C., about 2,200° C. to about 3,500° C., about 2,500° C. to about 3,000° C., about 2,500° C. to about 3,500° C., or about 3,000° C. to about 3,500° C. In some embodiments, the reaction temperature is about 500° C., about 1,000° C., about 1,500° C., about 1,600° C., about 1,700° C., about 1,800° C., about 2,000° C., about 2,200° C., about 2,500° C., about 3,000° C., or about 3,500° C. In some embodiments, the reaction temperature is at least about 500° C., about 1,000° C., about 1,500° C., about 1,600° C., about 1,700° C., about 1,800° C., about 2,000° C., about 2,200° C., about 2,500° C., or about 3,000° C. In some embodiments, the reaction temperature is at most about 1,000° C., about 1,500° C., about 1,600° C., about 1,700° C., about 1,800° C., about 2,000° C., about 2,200° C., about 2,500° C., about 3,000° C., or about 3,500° C.

In some embodiments, amount of energy consumed by the furnace during production of the metal product is about 5 GJ/tonne metal product to about 16 GJ/tonne metal product. In some embodiments, amount of energy consumed by the furnace during production of the metal product is about 5 GJ/tonne metal product to about 6 GJ/tonne metal product, about 5 GJ/tonne metal product to about 8 GJ/tonne metal product, about 5 GJ/tonne metal product to about 10 GJ/tonne metal product, about 5 GJ/tonne metal product to about 12 GJ/tonne metal product, about 5 GJ/tonne metal product to about 14 GJ/tonne metal product, about 5 GJ/tonne metal product to about 16 GJ/tonne metal product, about 6 GJ/tonne metal product to about 8 GJ/tonne metal product, about 6 GJ/tonne metal product to about 10 GJ/tonne metal product, about 6 GJ/tonne metal product to about 12 GJ/tonne metal product, about 6 GJ/tonne metal product to about 14 GJ/tonne metal product, about 6 GJ/tonne metal product to about 16 GJ/tonne metal product, about 8 GJ/tonne metal product to about 10 GJ/tonne metal product, about 8 GJ/tonne metal product to about 12 GJ/tonne metal product, about 8 GJ/tonne metal product to about 14 GJ/tonne metal product, about 8 GJ/tonne metal product to about 16 GJ/tonne metal product, about 10 GJ/tonne metal product to about 12 GJ/tonne metal product, about 10 GJ/tonne metal product to about 14 GJ/tonne metal product, about 10 GJ/tonne metal product to about 16 GJ/tonne metal product, about 12 GJ/tonne metal product to about 14 GJ/tonne metal product, about 12 GJ/tonne metal product to about 16 GJ/tonne metal product, or about 14 GJ/tonne metal product to about 16 GJ/tonne metal product. In some embodiments, amount of energy consumed by the furnace during production of the metal product is about 5 GJ/tonne metal product, about 6 GJ/tonne metal product, about 8 GJ/tonne metal product, about 10 GJ/tonne metal product, about 12 GJ/tonne metal product, about 14 GJ/tonne metal product, or about 16 GJ/tonne metal product. In some embodiments, amount of energy consumed by the furnace during production of the metal product is at least about 5 GJ/tonne metal product, about 6 GJ/tonne metal product, about 8 GJ/tonne metal product, about 10 GJ/tonne metal product, about 12 GJ/tonne metal product, or about 14 GJ/tonne metal product. In some embodiments, amount of energy consumed by the furnace during production of the metal product is at most about 6 GJ/tonne metal product, about 8 GJ/tonne metal product, about 10 GJ/tonne metal product, about 12 GJ/tonne metal product, about 14 GJ/tonne metal product, or about 16 GJ/tonne metal product.

In some embodiments, amount of energy consumed by the furnace during production of the metal product is about 16 GJ/tonne metal product to about 24 GJ/tonne metal product. In some embodiments, amount of energy consumed by the furnace during production of the metal product is about 16 GJ/tonne metal product to about 18 GJ/tonne metal product. In some embodiments, amount of energy consumed by the furnace during production of the metal product is about 18 GJ/tonne metal product to about 20 GJ/tonne metal product. In some embodiments, amount of energy consumed by the furnace during production of the metal product is about 18 GJ/tonne metal product to about 22 GJ/tonne metal product. In some embodiments, amount of energy consumed by the furnace during production of the metal product is about 22 GJ/tonne metal product to about 24 GJ/tonne metal product.

In some embodiments, the total carbon dioxide emissions caused by production of the metal product by the furnace is about 40% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace to about 99% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace. In some embodiments, the total carbon dioxide emissions caused by production of the metal product by the furnace is about 40% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace to about 50% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 40% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace to about 60% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 40% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace to about 70% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 40% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace to about 80% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 40% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace to about 90% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 40% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace to about 95% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 40% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace to about 99% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 50% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace to about 60% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 50% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace to about 70% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 50% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace to about 80% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 50% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace to about 90% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 50% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace to about 95% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 50% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace to about 99% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 60% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace to about 70% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 60% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace to about 80% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 60% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace to about 90% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 60% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace to about 95% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 60% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace to about 99% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 70% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace to about 80% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 70% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace to about 90% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 70% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace to about 95% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 70% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace to about 99% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 80% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace to about 90% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 80% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace to about 95% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 80% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace to about 99% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 90% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace to about 95% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 90% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace to about 99% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, or about 95% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace to about 99% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace. In some embodiments, the total carbon dioxide emissions caused by production of the metal product by the furnace is about 40% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 50% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 60% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 70% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 80% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 90% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 95% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, or about 99% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace. In some embodiments, the total carbon dioxide emissions caused by production of the metal product by the furnace is at least about 40% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 50% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 60% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 70% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 80% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 90% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, or about 95% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace. In some embodiments, the total carbon dioxide emissions caused by production of the metal product by the furnace is at most about 50% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 60% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 70% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 80% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 90% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 95% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, or about 99% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace.

In some embodiments, an amount of electricity consumed by the furnace during production of the metal product is about 1 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 6 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced. In some embodiments, an amount of electricity consumed by the furnace during production of the metal product is about 1 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 1.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 1 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 2 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 1 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 2.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 1 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 3 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 1 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 3.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 1 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 4 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 1 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 4.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 1 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 1 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 5.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 1 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 6 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 1.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 2 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 1.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 2.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 1.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 3 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 1.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 3.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 1.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 4 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 1.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 4.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 1.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 1.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 5.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 1.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 6 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 2 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 2.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 2 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 3 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 2 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 3.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 2 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 4 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 2 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 4.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 2 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 2 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 5.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 2 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 6 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 2.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 3 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 2.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 3.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 2.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 4 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 2.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 4.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 2.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 2.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 5.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 2.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 6 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 3 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 3.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 3 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 4 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 3 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 4.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 3 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 3 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 5.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 3 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 6 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 3.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 4 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 3.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 4.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 3.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 3.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 5.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 3.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 6 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 4 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 4.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 4 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 4 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 5.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 4 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 6 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 4.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 4.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 5.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 4.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 6 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 5.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 6 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, or about 5.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced to about 6 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced. In some embodiments, an amount of electricity consumed by the furnace during production of the metal product is about 1 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 1.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 2 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 2.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 3 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 3.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 4 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 4.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 5.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, or about 6 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced. In some embodiments, an amount of electricity consumed by the furnace during production of the metal product is at least about 1 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 1.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 2 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 2.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 3 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 3.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 4 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 4.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, or about 5.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced. In some embodiments, an amount of electricity consumed by the furnace during production of the metal product is at most about 1.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 2 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 2.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 3 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 3.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 4 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 4.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, about 5.5 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced, or about 6 MWhr/tonne of metal product produced. In some embodiments, operation of the photonic furnace to produce steel consumes about 50% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 70% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel. In some embodiments, operation of the photonic furnace to produce steel consumes about 50% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 55% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 50% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 60% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 50% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 65% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 50% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 70% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 55% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 60% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 55% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 65% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 55% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 70% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 60% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 65% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 60% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 70% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, or about 65% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 70% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel. In some embodiments, operation of the photonic furnace to produce steel consumes about 50% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 55% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 60% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 65% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, or about 70% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel. In some embodiments, operation of the photonic furnace to produce steel consumes at least about 50% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 55% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 60% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, or about 65% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel. In some embodiments, operation of the photonic furnace to produce steel consumes at most about 55% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 60% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 65% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, or about 70% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel.

In some embodiments, operation of the photonic furnace to produce steel consumes about 20% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 65% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel. In some embodiments, operation of the photonic furnace to produce steel consumes about 20% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 25% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 20% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 30% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 20% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 35% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 20% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 40% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 20% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 45% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 20% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 50% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 20% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 55% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 20% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 60% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 20% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 65% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 25% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 30% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 25% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 35% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 25% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 40% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 25% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 45% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 25% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 50% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 25% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 55% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 25% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 60% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 25% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 65% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 30% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 35% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 30% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 40% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 30% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 45% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 30% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 50% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 30% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 55% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 30% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 60% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 30% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 65% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 35% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 40% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 35% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 45% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 35% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 50% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 35% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 55% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 35% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 60% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 35% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 65% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 40% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 45% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 40% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 50% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 40% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 55% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 40% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 60% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 40% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 65% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 45% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 50% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 45% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 55% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 45% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 60% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 45% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 65% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 50% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 55% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 50% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 60% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 50% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 65% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 55% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 60% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 55% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 65% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, or about 60% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel to about 65% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel. In some embodiments, operation of the photonic furnace to produce steel consumes about 20% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 25% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 30% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 35% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 40% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 45% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 50% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 55% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 60% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, or about 65% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel. In some embodiments, operation of the photonic furnace to produce steel consumes at least about 20% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 25% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 30% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 35% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 40% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 45% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 50% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 55% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, or about 60% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel. In some embodiments, operation of the photonic furnace to produce steel consumes at most about 25% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 30% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 35% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 40% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 45% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 50% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 55% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, about 60% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel, or about 65% less energy than operation of a blast furnace to produce an equivalent amount of steel.

In some embodiments, the furnace is capable of producing about 100 tonnes of metal product per day to about 15,000 tonnes of metal product per day. In some embodiments, the furnace is capable of producing about 100 tonnes of metal product per day to about 200 tonnes of metal product per day, about 100 tonnes of metal product per day to about 500 tonnes of metal product per day, about 100 tonnes of metal product per day to about 1,000 tonnes of metal product per day, about 100 tonnes of metal product per day to about 10,000 tonnes of metal product per day, about 100 tonnes of metal product per day to about 15,000 tonnes of metal product per day, about 200 tonnes of metal product per day to about 500 tonnes of metal product per day, about 200 tonnes of metal product per day to about 1,000 tonnes of metal product per day, about 200 tonnes of metal product per day to about 10,000 tonnes of metal product per day, about 200 tonnes of metal product per day to about 15,000 tonnes of metal product per day, about 500 tonnes of metal product per day to about 1,000 tonnes of metal product per day, about 500 tonnes of metal product per day to about 10,000 tonnes of metal product per day, about 500 tonnes of metal product per day to about 15,000 tonnes of metal product per day, about 1,000 tonnes of metal product per day to about 10,000 tonnes of metal product per day, about 1,000 tonnes of metal product per day to about 15,000 tonnes of metal product per day, or about 10,000 tonnes of metal product per day to about 15,000 tonnes of metal product per day. In some embodiments, the furnace is capable of producing about 100 tonnes of metal product per day, about 200 tonnes of metal product per day, about 500 tonnes of metal product per day, about 1,000 tonnes of metal product per day, about 10,000 tonnes of metal product per day, or about 15,000 tonnes of metal product per day. In some embodiments, the furnace is capable of producing at least about 100 tonnes of metal product per day, about 200 tonnes of metal product per day, about 500 tonnes of metal product per day, about 1,000 tonnes of metal product per day, or about 10,000 tonnes of metal product per day. In some embodiments, the furnace is capable of producing at most about 200 tonnes of metal product per day, about 500 tonnes of metal product per day, about 1,000 tonnes of metal product per day, about 10,000 tonnes of metal product per day, or about 15,000 tonnes of metal product per day.

In some embodiments, beam impact areas of the light beams of at least two light sources overlap in space by about 20% to about 90%. In some embodiments, beam impact areas of the light beams of at least two light sources overlap in space by about 20% to about 30%, about 20% to about 40%, about 20% to about 50%, about 20% to about 60%, about 20% to about 70%, about 20% to about 80%, about 20% to about 90%, about 30% to about 40%, about 30% to about 50%, about 30% to about 60%, about 30% to about 70%, about 30% to about 80%, about 30% to about 90%, about 40% to about 50%, about 40% to about 60%, about 40% to about 70%, about 40% to about 80%, about 40% to about 90%, about 50% to about 60%, about 50% to about 70%, about 50% to about 80%, about 50% to about 90%, about 60% to about 70%, about 60% to about 80%, about 60% to about 90%, about 70% to about 80%, about 70% to about 90%, or about 80% to about 90%. In some embodiments, beam impact areas of the light beams of at least two light sources overlap in space by about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, or about 90%. In some embodiments, beam impact areas of the light beams of at least two light sources overlap in space by at least about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, or about 80%. In some embodiments, beam impact areas of the light beams of at least two light sources overlap in space by at most about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, or about 90%.

In some embodiments, beam impact areas of the light beams of at least two light sources overlap in space by about 1% to about 15%. In some embodiments, beam impact areas of the light beams of at least two light sources overlap in space by about 1% to about 5%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 15%, about 5% to about 10%, about 5% to about 15%, or about 10% to about 15%. In some embodiments, beam impact areas of the light beams of at least two light sources overlap in space by about 1%, about 5%, about 10%, or about 15%. In some embodiments, beam impact areas of the light beams of at least two light sources overlap in space by at least about 1%, about 5%, or about 10%. In some embodiments, beam impact areas of the light beams of at least two light sources overlap in space by at most about 5%, about 10%, or about 15%.

In some embodiments, the throughput to reactor volume ratio is about 10 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 100 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume. In some embodiments, the throughput to reactor volume ratio is about 10 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 20 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 10 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 30 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 10 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 40 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 10 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 50 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 10 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 60 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 10 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 70 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 10 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 80 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 10 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 90 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 10 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 95 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 10 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 100 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 20 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 30 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 20 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 40 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 20 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 50 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 20 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 60 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 20 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 70 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 20 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 80 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 20 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 90 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 20 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 95 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 20 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 100 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 30 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 40 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 30 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 50 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 30 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 60 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 30 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 70 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 30 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 80 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 30 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 90 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 30 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 95 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 30 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 100 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 40 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 50 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 40 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 60 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 40 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 70 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 40 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 80 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 40 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 90 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 40 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 95 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 40 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 100 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 50 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 60 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 50 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 70 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 50 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 80 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 50 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 90 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 50 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 95 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 50 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 100 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 60 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 70 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 60 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 80 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 60 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 90 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 60 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 95 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 60 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 100 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 70 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 80 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 70 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 90 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 70 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 95 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 70 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 100 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 80 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 90 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 80 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 95 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 80 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 100 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 90 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 95 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 90 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 100 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, or about 95 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume to about 100 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume. In some embodiments, the throughput to reactor volume ratio is about 10 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 20 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 30 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 40 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 50 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 60 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 70 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 80 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 90 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 95 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, or about 100 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume. In some embodiments, the throughput to reactor volume ratio is at least about 10 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 20 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 30 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 40 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 50 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 60 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 70 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 80 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 90 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, or about 95 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume. In some embodiments, the throughput to reactor volume ratio is at most about 20 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 30 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 40 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 50 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 60 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 70 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 80 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 90 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, about 95 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume, or about 100 g of metal product per second per cubic meter of reactor volume.

In some embodiments, the ratio of a total power output of the one or more light sources to a volume of the reactor is about 5 kW/m³to about 60 kW/m³. In some embodiments, the ratio of a total power output of the one or more light sources to a volume of the reactor is about 5 kW/m³to about 10 kW/m³, about 5 kW/m³to about 15 kW/m³, about 5 kW/m³to about 20 kW/m³, about 5 kW/m³to about 25 kW/m³, about 5 kW/m³to about 30 kW/m³, about 5 kW/m³to about 35 kW/m³, about 5 kW/m³to about 40 kW/m³, about 5 kW/m³to about 45 kW/m³, about 5 kW/m³to about 50 kW/m³, about 5 kW/m³to about 55 kW/m³, about 5 kW/m³to about 60 kW/m³, about 10 kW/m³to about 15 kW/m³, about 10 kW/m³to about 20 kW/m³, about 10 kW/m³to about 25 kW/m³, about 10 kW/m³to about 30 kW/m³, about 10 kW/m³to about 35 kW/m³, about 10 kW/m³to about 40 kW/m³, about 10 kW/m³to about 45 kW/m³, about 10 kW/m³to about 50 kW/m³, about 10 kW/m³to about 55 kW/m³, about 10 kW/m³to about 60 kW/m³, about 15 kW/m³to about 20 kW/m³, about 15 kW/m³to about 25 kW/m³, about 15 kW/m³to about 30 kW/m³, about 15 kW/m³to about 35 kW/m³, about 15 kW/m³to about 40 kW/m³, about 15 kW/m³to about 45 kW/m³, about 15 kW/m³to about 50 kW/m³, about 15 kW/m³to about 55 kW/m³, about 15 kW/m³to about 60 kW/m³, about 20 kW/m³to about 25 kW/m³, about 20 kW/m³to about 30 kW/m³, about 20 kW/m³to about 35 kW/m³, about 20 kW/m³to about 40 kW/m³, about 20 kW/m³to about 45 kW/m³, about 20 kW/m³to about 50 kW/m³, about 20 kW/m³to about 55 kW/m³, about 20 kW/m³to about 60 kW/m³, about 25 kW/m³to about 30 kW/m³, about 25 kW/m³to about 35 kW/m³, about 25 kW/m³to about 40 kW/m³, about 25 kW/m³to about 45 kW/m³, about 25 kW/m³to about 50 kW/m³, about 25 kW/m³to about 55 kW/m³, about 25 kW/m³to about 60 kW/m³, about 30 kW/m³to about 35 kW/m³, about 30 kW/m³to about 40 kW/m³, about 30 kW/m³to about 45 kW/m³, about 30 kW/m³to about 50 kW/m³, about 30 kW/m³to about 55 kW/m³, about 30 kW/m³to about 60 kW/m³, about 35 kW/m³to about 40 kW/m³, about 35 kW/m³to about 45 kW/m³, about 35 kW/m³to about 50 kW/m³, about 35 kW/m³to about 55 kW/m³, about 35 kW/m³to about 60 kW/m³, about 40 kW/m³to about 45 kW/m³, about 40 kW/m³to about 50 kW/m³, about 40 kW/m³to about 55 kW/m³, about 40 kW/m³to about 60 kW/m³, about 45 kW/m³to about 50 kW/m³, about 45 kW/m³to about 55 kW/m³, about 45 kW/m³to about 60 kW/m³, about 50 kW/m³to about 55 kW/m³, about 50 kW/m³to about 60 kW/m³, or about 55 kW/m³to about 60 kW/m³. In some embodiments, the ratio of a total power output of the one or more light sources to a volume of the reactor is about 5 kW/m³, about 10 kW/m³, about 15 kW/m³, about 20 kW/m³, about 25 kW/m³, about 30 kW/m³, about 35 kW/m³, about 40 kW/m³, about 45 kW/m³, about 50 kW/m³, about 55 kW/m³, or about 60 kW/m³. In some embodiments, the ratio of a total power output of the one or more light sources to a volume of the reactor is at least about 5 kW/m³, about 10 kW/m³, about 15 kW/m³, about 20 kW/m³, about 25 kW/m³, about 30 kW/m³, about 35 kW/m³, about 40 kW/m³, about 45 kW/m³, about 50 kW/m³, or about 55 kW/m³. In some embodiments, the ratio of a total power output of the one or more light sources to a volume of the reactor is at most about 10 kW/m³, about 15 kW/m³, about 20 kW/m³, about 25 kW/m³, about 30 kW/m³, about 35 kW/m³, about 40 kW/m³, about 45 kW/m³, about 50 kW/m³, about 55 kW/m³, or about 60 kW/m³.

In some embodiments, the ratio of a total power output of the one or more light sources to a volume of the reactor is about 60 kW/m³to about 160 kW/m³. In some embodiments, the ratio of a total power output of the one or more light sources to a volume of the reactor is about 60 kW/m³to about 80 kW/m³, about 60 kW/m³to about 100 kW/m³, about 60 kW/m³to about 120 kW/m³, about 60 kW/m³to about 140 kW/m³, about 60 kW/m³to about 160 kW/m³, about 80 kW/m³to about 100 kW/m³, about 80 kW/m³to about 120 kW/m³, about 80 kW/m³to about 140 kW/m³, about 80 kW/m³to about 160 kW/m³, about 100 kW/m³to about 120 kW/m³, about 100 kW/m³to about 140 kW/m³, about 100 kW/m³to about 160 kW/m³, about 120 kW/m³to about 140 kW/m³, about 120 kW/m³to about 160 kW/m³, or about 140 kW/m³to about 160 kW/m³. In some embodiments, the ratio of a total power output of the one or more light sources to a volume of the reactor is about 60 kW/m³, about 80 kW/3, about 100 kW/m³, about 120 kW/m³, about 140 kW/m³, or about 160 kW/m³. In some embodiments, the ratio of a total power output of the one or more light sources to a volume of the reactor is at least about 60 kW/m³, about 80 kW/m³, about 100 kW/m³, about 120 kW/m³, or about 140 kW/m³. In some embodiments, the ratio of a total power output of the one or more light sources to a volume of the reactor is at most about 80 kW/m³, about 100 kW/m³, about 120 kW/m³, about 140 kW/m³, or about 160 kW/m³.

In some embodiments, the optical power density delivered to the impact area is about 50 W/cm²to about 600 W/cm². In some embodiments, the total optical power delivered to each beam impact area is about 50 W/cm²to about 100 W/cm², about 50 W/cm²to about 200 W/cm², about 50 W/cm²to about 300 W/cm², about 50 W/cm²to about 600 W/cm², about 100 W/cm²to about 200 W/cm², about 100 W/cm²to about 300 W/cm², about 100 W/cm²to about 600 W/cm², about 200 W/cm²to about 300 W/cm², about 200 W/cm²to about 600 W/cm², or about 300 W/cm²to about 600 W/cm². In some embodiments, the total power delivered to each beam impact area is about 50 W/cm², about 100 W/cm², about 200 W/cm², about 300 W/cm², or about 600 W/cm². In some embodiments, the total power delivered to each beam impact area is at least about 50 W/cm², about 100 W/cm², about 200 W/cm², or about 300 W/cm². In some embodiments, the total power delivered to each beam impact area is at most about 100 W/cm², about 200 W/cm², about 300 W/cm², or about 600 W/cm².

In some embodiments, the optical power density delivered to the beam impact area is about 60 W/cm²to about 120 W/cm². In some embodiments, the total power delivered to each beam impact area is about 60 W/cm²to about 80 W/cm², about 60 W/cm²to about 120 W/cm², or about 80 W/cm²to about 120 W/cm². In some embodiments, the total power delivered to each beam impact area is about 60 W/cm², about 80 W/cm², or about 120 W/cm². In some embodiments, the total power delivered to each beam impact area is at least about 60 W/cm², or about 80 W/cm². In some embodiments, the total power delivered to each beam impact area is at most about 80 W/cm², or about 120 W/cm².

In some embodiments, the optical power density delivered to the beam impact area is about 0.5 kW/cm²to about 20 kW/cm². In some embodiments, the total power delivered to each beam impact area is about 0.5 kW/cm²to about 1 kW/cm², about 1 kW/cm²to about 5 kW/cm², about 5 kW/cm²to about 10 kW/cm², or about 10 kW/cm²to about 20 kW/cm². In some embodiments, the total power delivered to each beam impact area is about 1 kW/cm², about 0.5 kW/cm², or about 20 kW/cm². In some embodiments, the total power delivered to each beam impact area is at least about 0.5 kW/cm², or about 10 kW/cm². In some embodiments, the total power delivered to each beam impact area is at most about 10 kW/cm², or about 20 kW/cm².

In some embodiments, the ratio of a total power output of the one or more light sources to a volume of the reactor is about 600 kW/m³to about 1,600 kW/m³. In some embodiments, the ratio of a total power output of the one or more light sources to a volume of the reactor is about 600 kW/m³to about 800 kW/m³, about 600 kW/m³to about 1,000 kW/m³, about 600 kW/m³to about 1,200 kW/m³, about 600 kW/m³to about 1,600 kW/m³, about 800 kW/m³to about 1,000 kW/m³, about 800 kW/m³to about 1,200 kW/m³, about 800 kW/m³to about 1,600 kW/m³, about 1,000 kW/m³to about 1,200 kW/m³, about 1,000 kW/m³to about 1,600 kW/m³, or about 1,200 kW/m³to about 1,600 kW/m³. In some embodiments, the ratio of a total power output of the one or more light sources to a volume of the reactor is about 600 kW/m³, about 800 kW/m³, about 1,000 kW/m³, about 1,200 kW/m³, or about 1,600 kW/m³. In some embodiments, the ratio of a total power output of the one or more light sources to a volume of the reactor is at least about 600 kW/m³, about 800 kW/m³, about 1,000 kW/m³, or about 1,200 kW/m³. In some embodiments, the ratio of a total power output of the one or more light sources to a volume of the reactor is at most about 800 kW/m³, about 1,000 kW/m³, about 1,200 kW/m³, or about 1,600 kW/m³.

EXAMPLES
Example 1: Efficient Production of Carbon-Steel or Metallic Iron From Iron Oxide Using a Photonic Furnace Described Herein

Reducing agents of hydrogen, carbon, or carbon monoxide are heated to temperatures ranging of at least 1500° C. by the preheating system of a flow-through photonic furnace as described herein. Iron oxide is heated to a temperature of at least 1600° C. within 5 seconds through interaction with a 445 nm light source. The iron oxide metal precursor is dropped through the reaction chamber in the form of particles with particle sizes ranging from about 1 micron to about 6.3 mm. Following iron production, alloying elements are added to iron to produce steel. Steel alloys are produced, including but not limited to Stainless steel such as 316 or 316L, austenitic steel such as 304 or 304L, ferritic steel such as 430 or 434, martensitic steel such as 440, high carbon steel such as 1080, low carbon/mild steel such as A36, medium carbon/high-tensile steel such as 4140, 4340, and Alloy steel such as 6150, 8620.

Example 2: Efficient Production of Carbon-Steel or Metallic Iron From Iron Oxide Using a Photonic Furnace Equipped With a Vacuum Manifold Described Herein

A prototype photonic furnace was constructed as described herein, incorporating a laser diode array light source and a vacuum manifold configured to reduce a pressure inside the reaction chamber of the prototype furnace to less than 1 Torr. The prototype laser furnace was used to reduce iron ore into iron metal using thermal decomposition at a temperature above 2084° C. at the interaction point of the light beam and the iron ore by decomposition of iron oxide into molten iron metal and oxygen gas, eliminating carbon dioxide emissions from the reduction process of ironmaking. Heating of the iron ore was performed at heating rates of greater than 1500°C./s, which is facilitated by careful selection of the light source emission wavelength as demonstrated in FIG. 1, in combination with focusing of the light source to a high-power density at the beam impact point as illustrated in FIG. 6. The prototype furnace used for Example 2 is illustrated in FIG. 7.

The rapid heating rates of lasers allow 1) intermittent electricity to be used to power the laser furnace and 2) high iron ore throughput in small reactor volumes that can be pumped down by existing industrial vacuums. Gangue materials can be separated as slag from the molten iron metal, using photonic furnaces described herein, allowing low-grade hematite and taconite ore fines to be used as metal precursors for iron production. Reduction of such metal precursors was demonstrated using the prototype furnace, as illustrated in FIGS. 8A and 8B.

While preferred embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described herein, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. It is not intended that the invention be limited by the specific examples provided within the specification. While the invention has been described with reference to the aforementioned specification, the descriptions and illustrations of the embodiments herein are not meant to be construed in a limiting sense. Numerous variations, changes, and substitutions will now occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the invention. Furthermore, it shall be understood that all aspects of the invention are not limited to the specific depictions, configurations or relative proportions set forth herein which depend upon a variety of conditions and variables. It should be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments of the invention described herein may be employed in practicing the invention. It is therefore contemplated that the invention shall also cover any such alternatives, modifications, variations, or equivalents. It is intended that the following claims define the scope of the invention and that methods and structures within the scope of these claims and their equivalents be covered thereby.